The Pathophysiology of the Death of Jesus the Christ
Author: C. Thomas Black
Date: 2024-10-03T22:55:40+00:00
Keywords: atonement;Christ;crucifixion;Gethsemane;physiology;Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints;LDS;Mormonism;Psalm 22;Isaiah 53;Matthew 26;Matthew 27;Mark 14;Mark 15;Luke 22;Luke 23;John 17;John 18;Jo
Description: Abstract: Centuries-long speculation continues regarding the circumstances surrounding the death of the Savior. Over the past century, the Savior’s tribulations between the Last Supper and his death on the cross have been scrupulously examined from a medical viewpoint. In this article I review many of these studies and, using current medical acumen, propose additional inferences and explanations based on scriptural, medical, and historical accounts. The evidence suggests that at some point between Gethsemane and his last moments on the cross, the Lord’s body was pushed beyond the limit that a
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The Pathophysiology of the Death of Jesus the Christ

C. Thomas Black

Abstract: Centuries-long speculation continues regarding the circumstances surrounding the death of the Savior. Over the past century, the Savior’s tribulations between the Last Supper and his death on the cross have been scrupulously examined from a medical viewpoint. In this article I review many of these studies and, using current medical acumen, propose additional inferences and explanations based on scriptural, medical, and historical accounts. The evidence suggests that at some point between Gethsemane and his last moments on the cross, the Lord’s body was pushed beyond the limit that a normal mortal could endure. The Lord did, however, endure and completed the Atonement. He left this mortal life and “yielded up the ghost” (Matthew 27:50) on his own terms and timeframe, not as the result of any action inflicted upon him. He always acted and was never acted upon unwillingly. His persecutors, although permitted to inflict horrific injury and pain, were powerless either to take his life or to accelerate his death.

To the thoughtful Christian, a consideration of the suffering of Jesus Christ during the final hours of his life is both horrifying and compelling. President Thomas S. Monson expressed what most feel: “It is emotionally draining for me to recount the events leading up to the Crucifixion of the Master.”1 Although repugnant, the horrors endured by the Lord constitute the basis for the believer’s hope for the resurrection and for eternal life. Because of their love for the Lord, some will assert that an in-depth study of the brutal injuries the Lord endured is an unnecessary study of gratuitous violence and an affront to him and to his memory. I believe the converse to be true, that rather than suppressing it, the suffering of the Lord on our behalf should be studied and revered. Such understanding would be welcome because, as James E. Faust stated, “Any increase in our understanding of his atoning sacrifice draws us closer to him.”2

The reader is cautioned, however, that many people will find the material discussed in this article to be graphic and disturbing. I offer no apology, since the Lord himself commanded each of us to review weekly the circumstances of his suffering and death. The words of the sacramental prayers, “in remembrance of the body of thy Son” (Doctrine and Covenants 20:77) and “in remembrance of the blood of thy Son, which was shed for them” (Doctrine and Covenants 20:79), are not meant to be understood thoughtlessly or euphemistically but rather quite literally and profoundly. They should remind us of the unpleasant fact that

In token of thy bleeding flesh
And of thy blood so freely spent,
We meet around thy table now
And take thy holy sacrament.3

Two millennia after it occurred, the death of the Savior continues to be thought provoking and widely discussed. More than thirty articles discussing either death by crucifixion in general or the death of Jesus Christ in particular have appeared in the medical literature during just the past three years. After 2,000 years of intense scrutiny, however, no one will stumble upon an undiscovered statement or even a word in the Biblical text that will contribute immeasurably to our previous knowledge.

Numerous attempts to explain the cause of the Savior’s death have been proposed without achieving unanimity. All such attempts, including this one, are speculative. Even so, advances in scientific understanding—particularly in human physiology, biology, geography, and archeology—and the study of historical, secular, and sacred sources may allow additional inferences to be made with increasing accuracy. An exploration of his death, however, is far more complex than is a simple analysis of the effects of crucifixion and cannot be explained by medical acumen alone.4

The purpose of this essay is to provide an in-depth discussion of the physiologic and anatomic aspects of the suffering of the Lord to the extent we currently understand or may reasonably infer. Numerous commentators have championed diverse theories regarding the cause of the Savior’s physical death, and these will be reviewed. I also attempt, based on my own evaluations and inferences, to propose an opinion regarding the cause of the Lord’s death.

The Cause of Christ’s Death

Generally, the cause of death is the term applied to the inciting event of a chain of events that culminate in the death of an individual. The mechanism of death is those final steps that lead to the universal endpoint of cardiac arrest.5

This article will, as have many other articles, attempt to elucidate the mechanism of the death of the mortal body of Jesus Christ. In the end, however, the mechanism makes very little difference. Such a study is of value only if it helps to answer the question, “What or who set in motion the chain of events that inevitably led to his death?”

The usual answer is that the Romans, the Jews, or both caused the Savior’s death. Paul claims, “the Jews . . . both killed the Lord Jesus, and their own prophets” (1 Thessalonians 2:15). Matthew wrote that the Lord “must go unto Jerusalem, and suffer many things of the elders and chief priests and scribes, and be killed” (Matthew 16:21). Nephi says that the Jews “had slain the Messiah” (1 Nephi 10:11). Abinadi preached, “Yea, even so he shall be led, crucified, and slain” (Mosiah 15:7). The Lord himself said, “Come forth unto me, that ye may thrust your hands into my side, and also that ye may feel the prints of the nails in my hands and in my feet, that ye may know that I am the God of Israel, and the God of the whole earth, and have been slain for the sins of the world” (3 Nephi 11:14).

Christ, however, clearly said, “No man taketh it [my life] from me, but I lay it down of myself. I have power to lay it down, and I have power to take it again. This commandment have I received of my Father” (John 10:18). Christ never was or ever is the unwilling object of any external influences. Throughout his life the Lord always acted and was never acted upon. Perhaps he was willing to die, and his oppressors were simply the means to bring about his death. Such has been the case with other martyrs such as Paul, Abinadi, and Joseph Smith. I believe, however, that the unique nature of the Lord’s death means that it cannot be equated with the death of any other martyr. The Lord was given power over death, and it is unthinkable that he would relinquish this power to a group of mortals to be the agents of his death. His death atoned for all of mankind’s sins, while the death of no other could atone even for their own sins.

“The wages of sin is death” (Romans 6:23). The Law of Justice required death, and Christ was willing and able to pay that ultimate price to satisfy the requirement. On this, all of Christendom agrees; it is simply an issue of where did the atoning sacrifice take place? Was it on the cross at the third hour at the hands of his executioners, or in the Garden of Gethsemane as the full weight of the sins of all of creation crushed him? I believe that had he been a fully mortal individual, Jesus would have been mortally injured in the Garden as the result of the physical trauma he endured there.6 However, because he had to fulfill the demands of the Law of Justice and because he had power of life and death, he chose to sustain his body until the time was appropriate for him to release his spirit from his mortal body. Thus, following Gethsemane—where an ordinary mortal would have died—he remained alive and, by his own choice, continued to experience pain and suffering. Those who conspired against him were powerless to take his life—he was able to compensate for whatever they inflicted upon him. They didn’t even have the power to hasten his death—he would die when he was ready. They had power only to inflict additional pain and suffering.

Although the Lord could have healed himself and survived, the Law of Justice would not have been satisfied, and his sacrifice would have been for naught. Instead, he voluntarily gave up the ghost (Matthew 27:50, Mark 15:37, Luke 23:46; John 19:30). Some may find it anticlimactic to ascribe the cause of the Lord’s death to a “law,” but the Law of Justice is just as immutable as the Law of Gravity or the Law of Electricity, both of which claim lives every day. The effect of the Law of Justice on his physical body was death, albeit at a time of his choosing because of his ultimate power over life and death. That physical death may be the result of violations of sacred law should not be surprising as we have record of such events. Uzzah steadied the ark without authority, “and the anger of the Lord was kindled . . . and God smote him there for his error” (2 Samuel 6:7). Ananias and Sapphira lied to the Holy Ghost and died (Acts 5:1–10). Even Lot’s wife was killed for wanting to return to sinful Sodom (Genesis 19:26).

How Much Trauma Did the Lord Incur?

To appreciate completely what the Savior did on our behalf, we must have some concept of the amount and nature of the trauma that he incurred between the Last Supper and his death. This period may be divided into three distinct and informative stages for closer examination and analysis.

- In the Garden of Gethsemane
- Between Gethsemane and Golgotha
- At Golgotha

In the Garden of Gethsemane

Before entering the Garden of Gethsemane, Christ had already begun experiencing anguish several hours previously at the Last Supper. John relates that as he ate and spoke with his apostles, the Lord warned that one of those present would betray him, “When Jesus had thus said, he was troubled in spirit, and testified, and said, Verily, verily, I say unto you, that one of you shall betray me” (John 13:21). The Greek word translated to was troubled in English is etarachthe, the past tense of the verb tarássō, meaning, according to Thayer, “to agitate, trouble; to cause one inward commotion, take away his calmness of mind, disturb his equanimity; to disquiet, make restless.”7 His anguish intensified as he approached the Garden with his apostles; “And he took with him Peter and the two sons of Zebedee, and began to be sorrowful and very heavy. Then saith he unto them, My soul is exceeding sorrowful, even unto death: tarry ye here, and watch with me” (Matthew 26:37–38; Mark 14:38). The Lord then entered Gethsemane (Hebrew gat shemanim, “oil press”).

Christ’s suffering in Gethsemane was physical, not just emotional

That Christ suffered emotionally in the Garden is a given, but he suffered physically as well. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has emphasized the importance of the Lord’s spiritual and physical experiences in the Garden of Gethsemane more than have most other Christian denominations.8 The Church is more cognizant of the agony the Lord experienced in the Garden, partly because of the Lord’s own statements found in modern-day scripture. “Which suffering caused myself, even God, the greatest of all, to tremble because of pain, and to bleed at every pore, and to suffer both body and spirit—and would that I might not drink the bitter cup, and shrink” (Doctrine and Covenants 19:18). The mention of “[bleeding] at every pore” and “would that I might not drink the bitter cup” clearly reference the Lord’s agony in the Garden. That experience was horrific and traumatic to “both body and spirit.” The physical trauma he sustained in Gethsemane was not as obvious as the trauma he later suffered, but this does not mean that it was less painful or damaging to his physical health. Significantly, when Christ described the severity of the punishment awaiting the unrepentant, he alluded to the agony of Gethsemane, both spiritual and physical, rather than to later physical abuses. “For behold, I, God, have suffered these things for all, that they might not suffer if they would repent; But if they would not repent they must suffer even as I” (Doctrine and Covenants 19:16–17).

Current medical knowledge allows the bodily injury subsequently sustained by the Lord during the scourging and crucifixion to be reasonably quantifiable. The degree of damage inflicted upon his mortal body by his experience in the Garden of Gethsemane, however, is much more difficult to assess. Even the cause, and therefore to some extent, the degree of the agony the Lord experienced in Gethsemane is debated among and even minimized by many Christians. It is commonly maintained that Christ’s suffering was emotional distress over the impending physical abuse he knew he must endure and to his struggle with, and ultimate acquiescence to, the will of his Father. A few representative examples follow.

From a Methodist background, one author wrote,

Filled with anguish and deep dread over what He would soon experience, Jesus . . . takes refuge in . . . the Garden of Gethsemane. . . . There He wrestled in great sorrow with the torture and humiliation He knew was before him . . . He prayed in deep distress, overwhelmed about what was to come. . . . There in the Garden of Gethsemane, He felt sorrow and great distress over the hardship He would need to endure.9

Another, from a Baptist perspective asked,
don’t you think that Jesus’ agony was due to his awareness of his impending death as a sin-bearer for humanity and his attendant forsakenness by God the Father?10

And another with a Catholic viewpoint stated,

The Gethsemane experience was Jesus’ anticipation of bearing the guilt of all the sins of human history as if it were His own. I imagine that Jesus in His human nature experienced the natural fear of his impending suffering and death, but I think His agony in the garden was something more painful. It was the burden of the mystery of the world’s sin which lay on His heart. He was about to carry the awful burden of the world’s sin.11

A non-denominational evangelical minister writes,

The Bible shows us that Jesus (being God in the flesh) knew ahead of time the things he was going to suffer before they happened. This caused him such distress that as He prayed in the Garden of Gethsemane, just before his arrest, “His sweat became like drops of blood, falling down upon the ground.”12

Martin Pable, a Franciscan monk, resolved that Christ was “feeling weighed down with . . . fear, loneliness, and a sense of failure.”13 Friedrich Knecht, an early twentieth-century Catholic theologian, wrote of three possible causes he could discern for Christ’s agony:

- The anticipation of his impending torture and death

- The abhorrence and aversion he felt toward the horrible mass of evil, abomination and guilt that filled his soul as he took upon himself the sins of all men

- A realization that many souls would be eternally lost despite his Atonement because they would reject his invitation to salvation14

There is also a sentiment that Christ’s experience in Gethsemane was no more than the struggle we mortals also experience as we yield our will to that of The Father.

The events at the Garden of Gethsemane offer support and comfort to Christians today when they are going through difficult times in their lives. They believe that Jesus understands their pain because—like all human beings—he experienced suffering.

This story teaches Christians that in times of need they should pray to God, just as Jesus prayed to his Father.15

Some even maintain that The Lord’s internal anguish was due to concerns for his personal condition and that it was not on behalf of anyone else. The following are representative of some Christian writers:

Jesus, though very much divine, also shared fully and completely in the human condition. There in the Garden of Gethsemane, He felt sorrow and great distress over the hardship He would need to endure. He sought out the quiet and privacy of this special place so He could go before God and beg for a reprieve—though not a reprieve from the will of God, which Jesus was committed to.16

Jesus prayed three times to avoid the cross. He certainly experienced anxiety over His coming torture and gruesome death. However, He also understood the greater agony He would experience in bearing the sins of the world.17

Here is seen again the belief that the Savior’s Atonement occurred exclusively on the cross.

In these verses, we . . . see [the Savior’s] anguish, fear, and dread. He was overwhelmed and sorrowful as he is betrayed and abandoned. . . . Every one of us can identify with deep sorrow on some level. At some point in our lives, most of us have felt these deep emotions, maybe even to the point of wishing we would die instead of suffering so much. These feelings are human. There is nothing sinful about any of them. Even Jesus felt this way.18

One commentator believes that Christ was struggling with his “final temptation to . . . let the world perish instead of himself.”19

As mentioned by Knecht, perhaps the most common modern belief is that the Lord’s suffering was emotional, the result of extreme anxiety over the impending torture he knew he must face and his inevitable death.20 Such a viewpoint is, however, incompatible with the Lord’s admonition to “fear not them which kill the body, but are not able to kill the soul: but rather fear him which is able to destroy both soul and body in hell” (Matthew 10:28). Christ’s concern was always for all mortal beings, “For behold, I, God, have suffered these things for all, that they might not suffer if they would repent; but if they would not repent they must suffer even as I” (Doctrine and Covenants 19:16–17). Talmage agreed: “The thought that he suffered through fear of death is untenable.”21

Hematidrosis as a manifestation of Christ’s physical suffering

The Lord withdrew from his disciples, knelt, and prayed. As he prayed, his anguish deepened: “And being in an agony he prayed more earnestly: and his sweat was as it were great drops of blood falling down to the ground” (Luke 22:44). Modern-day scripture clarifies that his suffering was in large part physical since “[This] suffering caused myself, even God, the greatest of all, to tremble because of pain, and to bleed at every pore, and to suffer both body and spirit” (Doctrine and Covenants 19:18). Benjamin stated, “[H]e shall suffer . . . pain of body, hunger, thirst, and fatigue, even more than man can suffer, except it be unto death; for behold, blood cometh from every pore” (Mosiah 3:7).

Blood oozing from every pore is a rare medical condition called hematidrosis,22 “an eccrine sweat disorder where sweat mixed with blood appears spontaneously without any visible trauma to the skin . . . the most frequent trigger factors are either anxiety, fear, or excessive stress.”23 Appropriately, it is the physician, Luke, who alone records this phenomenon, which had been described anciently by Aristotle, who associated it with intense fear.24 Hematidrosis causes the capillaries in the skin to become extraordinarily fragile and to rupture. Blood escapes into the tissues and through the pores onto the skin. This loss of blood and sweat results in weakness and dehydration,25 but the total amount of blood lost through hematidrosis was probably not hemodynamically significant. The accuracy of Luke’s account has been disputed by some commenters due to the words “as it were” (Greek hósei), which may imply “similar to, but not exactly.” Other connotations include “about,” “as,” or “like.”26 Doubters claim that the wording is really a simile and the drops are not actually blood, just “like blood.”27 Anyone who has seen blood mixed with water knows that it takes only a small amount of blood mixed with a much greater quantity of water to appear as though the liquid is composed entirely of blood.

The microtrauma to the capillaries caused by hematidrosis renders the skin exquisitely sensitive.28 This hypersensitivity would have intensified the Lord’s suffering during his impending physical abuse.

Modern references to hematidrosis describe extreme suffering or anxiety resulting in a very limited amount of bleeding from small patches of skin.29 The degree of suffering required to cause “bleeding from every pore” is unimaginable. Elder McConkie describes what the Lord experienced.

We know that he lay prostrate upon the ground as the pains and agonies of an infinite burden caused him to tremble and would that he might not drink the bitter cup. . . .

As near as we can judge, these infinite agonies—this suffering beyond compare—continued for some three or four hours.30

President Nelson reminds us that the red raiment with which the Lord will be clothed at his second coming is a reminder of his blood-soaked raiment as he completed his ordeal in Gethsemane.31

Emotional stress disrupts the body’s equilibrium, or homeostasis. The stress response may be slow and long-term through the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. This axis regulates numerous longer-term physiological processes such as metabolism and the immune response. Chronic stress can cause maladaptive reactions including depression, anxiety, cognitive impairment, and heart disease.32

More frequently, however, the stress response is rapid and acute, mediated by the sympathetic-adreno-medullar (SAM) axis. This type of stress leads to the features of the so-called “fight or flight” response. The adrenal glands suddenly release the hormone epinephrine (adrenaline), which causes the body’s metabolism to shift into high gear as all systems are suddenly on alert and ready to deal with a crisis. The pupils dilate and the skin pales as blood is diverted to internal organs such as muscles. The heart pumps much harder and faster, increasing blood pressure. Chemical energy stored in the liver and muscles is quickly mobilized by epinephrine into glucose to provide ready energy, and blood glucose levels rise sharply.33 Metabolism increases and the respiratory rate rises to compensate for the increased demand for oxygen.

Such changes are normal and occur in varying degrees within each human being every day. The SAM stress response undoubtedly began very early in the course of the Savior’s time in Gethsemane, if not before he had even arrived in the Garden. Hematidrosis is the effect of a greatly exaggerated SAM response, but the SAM response is insufficient to explain why Christ “trembled with pain” and “suffered both body and spirit” as he took upon him the sins of the world. We do not understand the nature or the degree of this pain because no other mortal has experienced it.

The intense agony Christ experienced, which was sufficient to produce the most severe case of hematidrosis on record, was not solely from the fear of physical death or pain but of the infinitely more dreadful spiritual death that sin would impose upon others. “I, God, have suffered these things for all, that they might not suffer if they would repent; But if they would not repent they must suffer even as I” (Doctrine and Covenants 19:16–17).

Andrew Skinner writes, “in Gethsemane the Savior had to experience all things, even descend below all things, to satisfy the demands of justice. Those things included spiritual death, the withdrawal of the Father and the removal of his immediate influence.”34 “[T]here appeared an angel unto him from heaven, strengthening him” (Luke 22:43), “and we suppose it was mighty Michael, who foremost fell that mortal man might be.”35 Despite his paternal anguish,36 the Father had to allow his Son to complete what his Son had begun, without the Father’s direct intervention. He allowed Christ to be strengthened through an angel’s appearance, but we do not know the manner in which the Lord was strengthened. He may have received a priesthood blessing.37

McConkie said,

We know he suffered, both body and spirit, more than it is possible for man to suffer, except it be unto death . . . and these infinite agonies—this suffering beyond compare—continued for some three or four hours . . . his body [was] wrenched and drained of strength.38

Marion G. Romney observed that Jesus suffered “the pains of all men, which he did, principally, in Gethsemane, a scene of great agony.”39 Despite the lack of externally appreciable physical trauma, Gethsemane was a site of incomprehensible agony and significant physiologic injury. Ezra Taft Benson wrote, “It was in Gethsemane . . . where His pain was equivalent to the cumulative burden of all men.”40

The lethal effects of extreme exertion

We can never begin to imagine how grueling the exertions were that left the Lord’s body, in McConkie’s own but inspired words, “wrenched and drained of strength.”41 “Wrenched” clearly implies an extreme physical activity that has strained and stressed muscles and joints. “Drained,” however, is a physiologic effect that reflects the resultant severe depletion of available energy.

Energy in readily available form is stored in the body in the form of a carbohydrate called glycogen. Glycogen consists of chains of glucose (sugar) molecules linked together. Glycogen can be easily and quickly transformed into glucose when immediate energy is needed. One of the consequences of the SAM response, which the evidence suggests the Lord experienced to a greatly exaggerated degree in the Garden of Gethsemane, is that the body’s glycogen stores are quickly mobilized into glucose for immediate use.42 When an individual’s glycogen stores become depleted after rigorous physical activity, glucose is no longer available to provide needed energy. When long-distance runners and road cyclists experience this sudden loss of energy, they say they have “hit the wall” or “bonked.” For marathon runners, this typically occurs around mile twenty.43 Symptoms include incapacitating fatigue, nausea, vertigo, headache, impaired cognition, poor coordination, and diminished mental acuity. Christ concluded his ordeal in Gethsemane in a similar state. This suggests that the calories the Lord expended exceeded the caloric expenditure of even all extreme human activities.

Estimates of the Lord’s height and weight are predictably diverse. Judas had to point him out among the rest of the apostles. Isaiah indicates that he was apparently average in appearance “he hath no form nor comeliness; and when we shall see him, there is no beauty that we should desire him” (Isaiah 53:2). At one extreme, based on an examination of the Shroud of Turin,44 Ferri believed the Lord’s height to have been 74 in (185 cm).45 Taylor, who bases her investigations on archeological and anthropological data, estimates the height of a typical Jewish male at the time to have been a more plausible 66 in (168 cm).46 Based on his active lifestyle and likely sparse diet, she agrees that the Lord was thin.47 Assuming a BMI of about 20, which is on the lower end of normal for an adult male,48 his weight would have been about 123 lb (56 kg). At that weight, high impact aerobic exercise would consume about 400 calories per hour (CPH), vigorous calisthenics about 475 CPH, running upstairs about 900 CPH, and running a 5.5 minute mile about 1,050 calories per hour.49

Untrained individuals are able to store only about 1,500 calories as glycogen.50 Although training may allow an athlete to develop the ability to carbohydrate load, or to store glycogen as a reserve of up to about 3,600 calories, we have no evidence that the Lord had done so. Three hours of the equivalent of running upstairs, not even the most vigorous of the activities mentioned, would have consumed at least 2,700 calories. The Lord had already walked from the Last Supper to Gethsemane, an estimated distance of about a mile downhill and up again, expending about 100 calories. It is therefore quite likely that he had more than depleted 1,500 calories of stored glycogen and hit the wall, suffering from complete exhaustion.

If an individual who has become completely energy depleted is allowed to rest for at least ten minutes (perhaps during the angel’s visit?), energy will begin to be produced from free fatty acids—the so-called second wind.51 However, nutrition must then be ingested to replenish the depleted glycogen stores. If this does not happen, symptoms will worsen and muscle protein will begin to be metabolized, damaging muscle and producing byproducts toxic to the kidneys.52 How appropriate it is that the Lord instituted at the Last Supper the practice of partaking of bread, which is composed of starch, the precursor of glucose and glycogen, the very substance he was lacking, as a symbol of the sacrifice of his body.

Reports examining the effects of severe acute exhaustion, such as on a forced march,53 are scant in medical literature. Non-combatants are rarely forced to exert themselves to the point of death, and the pathophysiology of persons forced to do so has never been scientifically studied. Perhaps the individuals most comparable are marathon or ultramarathon runners, who voluntarily push themselves beyond normal physiologic limits. When they do so, the heart is most often affected, as evidenced by deaths among marathon runners. According to Plutarch, Eucles (or perhaps Thersippus) ran the first “marathon” in 490 BC, running twenty-seven miles from the Plains of Marathon to Athens to bring news of victory before collapsing and dying.54 The association of cardiac death with distance running is well known.55 Since the modern marathon began in 1896 to the time of this article, sixty-one runners have died during sanctioned competitions. Of the fifty-six deaths studied, forty-two were found to be cardiac related, and thirty-five of those were due either to a heart attack or to a cardiac arrhythmia. Four others died of a significant electrolyte imbalance.56 Fifty-one fatalities have been associated with ultramarathons between 2008 and 2019 in Western Europe alone. The major cause of death was sudden cardiac arrest due to heart failure (43%), a myocardial infarction, or an arrhythmia.57 The psalmist alludes to the weakened condition of the Lord’s heart at the time of his Atonement; “my heart is like wax; it is melted in the midst of my bowels” (Psalm 22:14).

The comparison to a distance runner is helpful only to establish that the heart is most likely responsible for the death of an individual whose metabolism has been overexerted. The comparison between long distance running and the Lord’s experience in Gethsemane suggests that his heart was likely adversely affected by his severe exertions, but this comparison greatly underestimates the probable effect on the Lord’s physical body. Each of the above-referenced runners was in superb physical condition, had trained extensively, and had had previous long distance running experience. The Lord, although likely in good physical condition, had doubtless not undergone athletic training nor had he stored excess carbohydrates in preparation for this experience. We do not know the type of exertion to which the Lord was subjected, but it was without a doubt more taxing than long distance running. No one had been subjected to the degree of exertion the Lord experienced nor have they been since.

During the SAM response mentioned above, large amounts of catecholamines, primarily epinephrine, are rapidly secreted into the bloodstream. The physiologic effects of these agents are seen almost instantaneously. The closest approximation to an exaggerated SAM response such as the Lord may have experienced might be seen during an inadvertent or even intentional administration of a large dose of epinephrine intravenously.58 Effects include tachycardia (very rapid heart rate), several types of potentially fatal cardiac arrhythmias, and a lack of blood flow to the heart that often results in a myocardial infarction (heart attack). A cerebrovascular hemorrhage (stroke) is also possible, although that occurs more often among elderly patients. Severe pulmonary edema (fluid congestion) may develop in the lungs. Glucose is rapidly mobilized from glycogen resulting in an elevated blood sugar level (hyperglycemia).59 As a result, an intense and prolonged episode of increased circulating epinephrine will result in profound hypoglycemia. The Lord was unable to replenish his glycogen stores, so further exertion would have been grueling and further damaging to his body.

Circulating epinephrine is quickly metabolized with a half-life of just two to three minutes.60 It is synthesized so rapidly, however, that acute depletion of circulating catecholamines is difficult to demonstrate in a living organism and does not normally occur.61 Once the precipitating threat is past, catecholamine stores are very rapidly replenished, but the effects of a typical “adrenaline rush” may linger in a normal individual for up to an hour.62

Both the cardiac and the metabolic consequences of an extreme SAM response may have been, and I believe probably were, lethal to the Lord’s physical body in the Garden. Lund believes that the Savior’s death was due to the events in Gethsemane and not to the numerous subsequent injuries he incurred that culminated in the crucifixion.63 It was not, however, the appropriate time for the Savior to die. He had instituted the Sacrament in remembrance of the sacrifice of his body and blood, which was yet to occur. The following discussion concerning Christ’s suffering after Gethsemane is essential to our appreciation of what he endured on our behalf, and it is his desire that we review these events often—usually weekly.

Between Gethsemane and Golgotha

According to the authors of the gospels, relatively little time elapsed between the agony and anguish of Gethsemane and the Lord’s apprehension by the mob. One moment he was in agony, bleeding from every pore and drained of strength, while quite soon after he was greeting the apostles and then—“while he yet spake” (Matthew 26:47, Mark 14:43, Luke 22:47)—the arresting mob. There is no hint in the narrative of any lack of energy or impaired demeanor. It is as if his physical body had become miraculously reanimated, as I believe it had. Prior to considering the events between Gethsemane and Golgotha it is important to remember that regardless of what happened in Gethsemane, the Lord still possessed a mortal body that was capable of every normal physiological response including, and perhaps most importantly, the response to pain.

The Lord had healed the sick on numerous occasions and had very recently raised Lazarus from the dead. Following Gethsemane and his arrest, he reattached and healed a severed ear. His ability to manipulate human anatomy and physiology in a miraculous manner was demonstrably unchanged. This divine ability surely applied to his own physiology as well.

Following his apprehension, Christ was subjected to life-threatening trauma during the mockery of a series of trials. He was taken first to Annas, then to Caiaphas, to Pilate, to Herod Antipas, and then back to Pilate. Throughout this process, he was made to walk a distance of perhaps 2.5 miles (4.0 km),64 although some specific locations are not precisely known, expending some 250 more calories.

Using a combination of religious, scriptural, historical, and astronomical data, and logic, Chadwick proposes that the Lord was crucified on a Thursday rather than a Friday. Christ had predicted quite specifically, “For as Jonas was three days and three nights in the whale’s belly; so shall the Son of man be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth” (Matthew 12:40). Indisputably, he appeared first to Mary on a Sunday morning, and given a Friday crucifixion and death, no manipulation of time can account for the three nights predicted by the Lord. Only a Thursday crucifixion and death could satisfy both three days and three nights.

Humphreys has examined the time needed for all the known events that occurred between the Garden of Gethsemane and the crucifixion on Friday morning. He provides compelling evidence that the Jewish and Roman trials occupied an additional day and could not have been carried out overnight. He maintains that the Last Supper took place actually on Wednesday evening rather than on Thursday, which was occupied with the trials.65 Furthermore, why would Herod Antipas, Pontius Pilate, Pilate’s wife, Barabbas, the apostles, a large mob of people, and all the soldiers be awake and active between 3 and 6 am? It is more reasonable that Jesus was incarcerated overnight and that the trials took place during usual daylight hours. If true, an additional day of hunger, thirst, sleeplessness, and suffering would have contributed to the Lord’s critical condition.

Chadwick proposes further, and most importantly, that the Lord and his apostles celebrated the Passover on a Tuesday evening, as the Essenes did.66 The text itself may support an additional day between the arrest and the crucifixion. When the Lord stood before Pilate “it was the preparation of the passover, and about the sixth hour: and he saith unto the Jews, Behold your King!” (John 19:14). The Jewish sixth hour corresponds to our noon or midday. Mark reports, however, that the Lord was crucified at the third hour (Mark 15:25). Had he been crucified at the first “third hour” following his apprehension, by the time of the first “sixth hour,” three hours later, rather than standing before Pilate, he would already have been on the cross for three hours. Numerous suggestions have been proposed to reconcile this discrepancy, but one possibility is certainly that there was an additional day of incarceration that was occupied by the trials.

Chadwick suggests that the timeline of events commencing with the gathering in the upper room was as follows (note that a Jewish day begins at sunset). For example, Wednesday night precedes Wednesday day:

Wednesday night—the Lord and his disciples celebrate the Essene Passover and the Last Supper, he prays in Gethsemane, he is apprehended and incarcerated for the remainder of the night.

Wednesday day—the Jewish and Roman trials. The Lord stands before Pilate at the sixth hour.

Thursday night—the Lord is again incarcerated overnight awaiting his death on the morrow.

Thursday morning—Chadwick writes that Pilate sentenced the Lord early on Thursday morning prior to the scourging, but I believe that this is more likely to have taken place on Wednesday afternoon following the trial. The Lord is scourged soon after dawn, is made to walk to Golgotha, and is crucified at the third hour.

Thursday afternoon—the Savior “gives up the ghost” at the ninth hour and is entombed.

Late Thursday afternoon, all of Friday night and the following day, all of Saturday night and the following day, all of Sunday night and possibly a small part of Sunday morning following dawn—the Lord is “in the earth” fulfilling the Sign of Jonas.

Sunday morning—after three complete nights and more than three days, the Lord appears to Mary.67

The number forty has special significance in both Judaism and Christianity. In the Talmud, forty is sometimes “used as a round number or as a concrete and definite expression in place of the abstract and indefinite ‘many’ or ‘some.’” In fact, the number is used so frequently that it is now assumed that “forty” is more symbolic than it is precise.68 Forty was, however, often a literal rather than an abstract number. A few examples among many include the number of weeks from conception to birth for a human being, the number of lashes allowed for corporal punishment (Deuteronomy. 25:5) (although it was typically reduced to thirty-nine), how many days Goliath challenged the army of Israel (1 Samuel. 17:16), and the number of days Nineveh was allowed for repentance before it would have been destroyed (Jonah 3:4).

According to the Orthodox Jewish educational organization, AISH, “The number forty has great significance throughout the Torah and the Talmud. The number forty represents transition or change; the concept of renewal; a new beginning. The number forty has the power to lift a spiritual state.”69 The Fathers of Mercy, a Roman Catholic Congregation of Priests, writes, “In Sacred Scripture, the number ‘40’ signifies new life, new growth, transformation, a change from one great task to another great task, etc.”70 Halverson, a Latter-day Saint scholar, says, “In scripture, the number 40 symbolizes a time of trial, testing, uncertainty, difficulty, effort, wandering, and wondering.”71

Consequently, it is possible that the Lord lived for forty more hours after being apprehended. If he had been betrayed and arrested at 11 pm, he would have been in custody for one hour prior to midnight, twenty-four hours throughout Wednesday, and the fifteen hours of Thursday from midnight until 3:00 pm. This would total forty hours, symbolic of transition, change, renewal, a new beginning, a new life, transformation, or a change from one great task to another great task.

Blunt facial trauma

Because of his responses, and sometimes because of his failure to respond, the Lord’s tormentors slapped him (John 18:22), “spit in his face and buffeted him,” “smote him with the palms of their hands,” and “struck him on the face” (Matthew 26:67, Mark 14:65, Luke 22:63–64, John 19:3). These were vicious men, physically stronger than the Lord and trained to inflict significant injury, who repeatedly struck him while he was bound, defenseless, and even blindfolded (Luke 22:64). Blunt trauma to the face often causes lacerations of the skin and bruising of the subcutaneous tissues. Such trauma may also result in fractures of the teeth, nasal bones, the maxilla (upper jaw), the zygoma (cheekbone), the orbit (eye socket), or the mandible (jaw). Isaiah seems to have foreseen the results of this trauma when he wrote, “As many were astonied at thee; his visage was so marred more than any man, and his form more than the sons of men” (Isaiah 52:14). The writer of the Psalms assures us that not one of the Lord’s bones were broken, “Not one of [my bones] is broken” (Psalm 34:20), and John verifies that the prophecy was fulfilled (John 19:36). If so, the soft tissues bore the brunt of this trauma. The pain he suffered as a result of the beatings was intensified by the hypersensitivity of his facial skin associated with his recent “bleeding from every pore.”

Occasionally the Lord did not respond to questioning. This fulfilled the prophecy of Isaiah, “he is brought as a lamb to the slaughter, and as a sheep before her shearers is dumb, so he openeth not his mouth” (Isaiah 53:7). We know that this and surrounding verses refer specifically to the Lord because Philip said so when he taught the eunuch who asked him for the meaning of this scripture (Acts 8:32). Why did he not answer? It is not unreasonable to imagine that blows to his head left him momentarily stunned or with a mild concussion and unable to respond. However, Jesus also possessed the power to heal himself and sustain his body, so it is just as likely that not answering was a conscious decision on his part not to provide additional answers to those who would not accept his answers.

The scourging and its effects

Scourging is certainly one of the most violent and inhumane of all forms of physical abuse that human beings have devised to be used against their fellow human beings. The Romans were experts at administering this punishment. Although the scriptural accounts do not inform us whether the two malefactors with whom the Lord was crucified were scourged, according to Mommsen, it was the rule at the time before crucifixion, so it is likely the case.72

Abhorrent as it may be, we are commanded to reflect upon, and be grateful for salvation “only through the atoning blood of Jesus Christ” (Helaman 5:9). Blood was shed by Christ on at least five occasions:

- From the pores of his skin in Gethsemane,

- (Likely) from facial trauma during beatings,

- From the skin, muscles, and deep tissues of his back and elsewhere during and following scourging,

- From his scalp, pierced by the crown of thorns,

- From his hands and feet at the crucifixion,

- (Posthumously) from his side when pierced by the spear.

Of these, however, surely the greatest amount of bloodshed occurred as a result of scourging (Matthew 27:2, 6; John 19:1; Mark 15:15) and relatively little from the crucifixion itself.

Nephi (1 Nephi 19:9), Jacob (2 Nephi 6:9), Benjamin (Mosiah 3:9), and Abinadi (Mosiah 15:5) conspicuously mention that the Lord would be scourged. With chilling accuracy Isaiah wrote, “But he was wounded for our transgressions, he was bruised for our iniquities: the chastisement of our peace was upon him; and with his stripes we are healed” (Isaiah 53:5). Scourging was clearly an essential part of the Lord’s Atonement since it was the principle manner by which we are saved “only through the atoning blood of Jesus Christ” (Helaman 5:9). Although distasteful and even horrifying for most followers of Christ to consider, we are obligated—even commanded—to reflect weekly on the bloodshed that was essential to the Atonement of the Savior as we partake of the Sacramental water, “that they may [drink of it] in remembrance of the blood of thy Son, which was shed for them” (Doctrine and Covenants 20:79). We love the Lord for what he did on our behalf, but we would rather not dwell on his experiences.

The gospels relate no details about the scourging of Christ, which has led some commentators to claim that the event was not significant enough to warrant much attention73 or perhaps that it never even occurred.74 It is possible that none of them were eyewitnesses to the actual event, but at least John saw him on the cross (John 19:26) and must have noticed the effects of the scourging. Despite much having been written about the practice of scourging in the ancient world, we know relatively little about the manner in which the Lord was scourged.75 The first comment on the scourging of the Savior is found in the Revelations of St. Bridget of Sweden (1303–1373 AD), who stated that she had seen in a vision that the Lord had been “scourged with barbed whips.”76

Andrea Nicolotti, Professor of History of Christianity at the University of Turin, wrote,

In 1416 Vincent Ferrer preached that Jesus was scourged by the soldiers with switches of thorns and brambles, then by whips the tips of which bore nodules with spiked tips attached, and finally by chains with hooks at the ends. The belief that these three types of scourges were used became widespread, . . . [h]owever, there is no evidence that these really existed in ancient Rome at the time of Jesus.77

A single example of a Roman scourge was found in the city of Herculaneum, buried during the eruption of Mt Vesuvius in 79 AD. It had a wooden handle and three leather thongs with two lead balls attached to the ends of each thong but no spikes or hooks.78 After an exhaustive discussion of scourging practices in the Roman world, Nicolotti wrote,

We know nothing about the progression and intensity of the scourging of Jesus, . . . yet, despite the scarcity of information, it is not uncommon for modern commentaries of the narratives about Christ’s passion and Biblical dictionaries to provide a fairly accurate description of the tool used to scourge him.79

He states further, “Unfortunately, there is no information about the shape of the scourge.” Referring to various whips and flagella that have been depicted and described over the past millennium, he states, “there is no evidence that these really existed in ancient Rome at the time of Jesus.”80

Much of what has been claimed about the manner of scourging has been deduced from an examination of the Shroud of Turin, the existence of which can be reliably dated to no earlier than 1353. The Shroud is a large linen cloth purported to have been the burial shroud of the Savior, but its veracity is in question. Inferences regarding the details of crucifixion, and especially of specifics pertaining to the crucifixion of the Savior are specious. McConkie, however, validated some claims of those who have analyzed the patterns of markings on the Shroud when he stated that the Lord was “scourged with a multi-thonged whip into whose leather strands sharp bones and cutting metals were woven.”81

Despite the paucity of historical or archeological evidence, if McConkie’s and other descriptions of brutal scourging are accurate, the whip or flagrum would have consisted of a short handle with several short single or braided leather thongs into which small iron balls and sharp pieces of bone, glass, or other hard objects were affixed.82 The man was first stripped of clothing and his hands tied to a post, immobilizing him and exposing and arching his back.83 A strong soldier or two, called lictors, then repeatedly and aggressively flogged the victim’s back, buttocks, and legs. As the victim was repetitively struck with force, the iron balls would cause deep contusions, and the thongs and sharp bones would lacerate the skin, subcutaneous tissue, and muscles down to the bone. Sometimes injuries could extend even more deeply. Eusebius records, “bystanders were struck with amazement when they saw them lacerated with scourges even to the innermost veins and arteries, so that the hidden inward parts of the body, both their bowels and their members, were exposed to view.”84 Often bones would be exposed.85 Scourging was intended to bring the victim to a state near to death. Although individuals would occasionally die from the effects of scourging alone, the intent was to weaken the victim, not to kill him.86

We do not know whether Christ was scourged more brutally than were the other two crucarii. It is quite possible that he was, however, because of the perceived anti-Roman implications of his statement about being the King of the Jews. While the Jews were limited to administering 39 lashes (2 Cor 11:24), the Romans had no limit,87 and Pilate, who oversaw the scourging, was Roman.

Some commentators believe that the Lord was whipped or scourged twice.88 They reference John’s account that relates that Pilate wanted to release him. Pilate first tells the Jews, “I find no fault in him” (John 18:38), but the Jews demanded that Barabbas be released rather than the Lord. Pilate makes a final attempt to mollify the bloodthirsty mob by stating, “I will therefore chastise him and release him” (Luke 23:16, 20, 22). As the reasoning goes, this chastisement consisted of a less vicious form of scourging than that which we generally envision (John 19:1). Following this flogging (of which there is no explicit record), Pilate then presented the Lord before the crowd, repeating “I find no fault in him” (John 19:4) and “Behold the man” (John 19:5). If his intent were to appeal to their mercy, it was to no avail as the unappeased crowd and religious leaders continued to demand crucifixion and called for the release of Barabbas rather than the Lord. As the mob demanded “Crucify him, crucify him,” Pilate, after stating a third time that he found no fault in the Lord, finally realized that the mob was not to be placated so he acquiesced to their demand (John 19:6). “And he released unto them [Barabbas] but he delivered Jesus to their will” (Luke 23:25), which was crucifixion (Luke 23:23). Mark specifies the chronology: “And so Pilate, willing to content the people, released Barabbas unto them, and delivered Jesus, when he had scourged him, to be crucified” (Mark 15:15).

If there had been a first, more lenient episode of scourging, the second episode would have been much more violent, as it customarily prepared the condemned individual for crucifixion.89 Two episodes of scourging would have left the Lord considerably weaker physically than the usual victim, including the other two who were crucified with him. The soldiers of the governor had handled the Savior in a particularly cruel manner so they may also have been particularly vicious in administering the scourging. The fact that the Lord did not die as a result of the scourging is no indication of its severity. He did not die in Gethsemane, and regardless of his injuries, he would not have submitted to death before the appropriate moment.

Little has been written about the muscular and neurovascular injuries that must have resulted from scourging. The trapezius and latissimus dorsi muscles are the most superficial muscles covering the upper and most of the lower back. These must have been severely lacerated. Beneath them lie the rhomboids, the teres major and minor, and the serratus posterior muscles, which would likely also have been injured. The spinal accessory nerves, which run from the neck down the back on either side, allow the trapezius muscles to function; these may have been severed along with the thoracodorsal nerves, which enervate the latissimus muscles. These injuries are important because these muscles allow an individual to pull himself up when his hands are outstretched or above his head, which are those movements necessary to allow one to breathe while immobilized on a cross (see below).

Blood loss from torn blood vessels and muscles may result in hypovolemia, defined as inadequate circulating blood volume.90 Severe enough hypovolemia may result in shock, which is defined as insufficient oxygenation of body tissues, especially the brain.91 Using Taylor’s estimate of the Lord’s height92 to calculate an estimated weight of 123 lb (56 kg), and the normal blood volume for a healthy adult male as about 7% of body weight, his expected blood volume would have been about nine pints (4,200 mL).93 The degree of hemorrhagic hypovolemia (sudden or acute blood loss) is based on the percentage of total blood volume (TBV) lost. A less than 15% decrease in the TBV is termed Class I and results in few physiologic effects. Given the Lord’s estimated weight, this would be less than 630 mL. A 15%–30% blood loss is termed Class II and results in an elevated heart rate above 100, decreased blood pressure, increased respiratory rate, and anxiety (630–1,260 mL). Class III TBV loss of 30%–40% results in a heart rate over 120, decreased blood pressure, increased respiratory rate, and mental confusion (1,260–1,680 mL). Class IV blood loss, greater than 40% results in a heart rate over 140, decreased blood pressure, increased respiratory rate, and lethargy (greater than 1,680 mL).94

There are few major blood vessels in the back, so profuse bleeding from a single vessel would have been unlikely, but muscle contains innumerable tiny vessels, which, in aggregate, can bleed considerably. The lictors undoubtedly knew to avoid large vessels close to the skin, such as those in the neck and upper arms, so they could inflict injury but not death.

Clearly, the more hypovolemic an individual is prior to crucifixion, the more unstable he will be and the shorter the length of time he might be expected to survive. This may be particularly significant in the Lord’s case since there is no evidence that he had ingested any food or drink following the Passover meal with his Apostles. He had proceeded directly from the upper room to Gethsemane, where he had sweat and bled, and was taken captive immediately thereafter. As a prisoner, it is quite unlikely that he was fed, especially if he were held only overnight.

The tissue injuries sustained by the Lord during scourging were far worse than they would have been had he sustained a second- or third-degree burn. According to a current formula widely used for resuscitating burn victims, an individual whose entire back has been burned should receive an estimated 5,600 mL (6 quarts) of fluid during the 24 hours following the injury.95 Furthermore, his injuries may not have been limited to his back. The actual fluid loss experienced by the Lord would most certainly have been significantly greater, yet he received no resuscitative fluid.

The crown of thorns

A crown is normally a symbol of power and royalty, but the crown of thorns placed on the Savior’s head symbolized disrespect and humiliation. It was also viciously cruel, and identifying the plant from which the crown of thorns was made is of more than dispassionate academic interest since some species are more traumatizing than others. The identity of the species of plant from which the crown of thorns was fashioned is lost in antiquity. Nevertheless, local folklore identifies various species as possible sources.

One popular legend identifies the shrub from which the crown of thorns was woven as Euphorbia milii “crown of thorns,” “Christ plant,” or “Christ’s thorn.” The thorns of this plant measure 1–2 in (20–50 mm) in length.96 Although the plant is native to Madagascar rather than to the Levant, historical evidence suggests that it was introduced to that area at about the time of Christ.97

Another legend maintains that the crown of thorns was fashioned from the branches of the Syrian Christ’s thorn or jujube tree (Ziziphus spina-christi). This tree is native to and common in the Levant.98 The thorns measure between 1/4 and 3/4 in (5–20 mm) in length.99 The branches may be too brittle, though, to be woven easily into a crown of thorns.

Another possibility is the ‘Jerusalem thorn,’ ‘garland thorn,’ or ‘crown of thorns’ Paliurus spina-christi. This plant is closely related to the aforementioned Ziziphus spina-christi but the branches are more flexible and easier to plait. The thorns are stiff and spiky and occur in pairs of unequal length, one straight and one hooked.100

Euphorbia milii, perhaps the candidate most likely to have been the actual crown of thorns, exudes a white sap from the cut surface. This sticky sap is a latex that contains a toxin that can cause severe blistering when it comes into contact with the skin.101 It is so caustic that experts recommend wearing gloves when handling the plant. The sticky sap causes temporary blindness if it gets in the eyes.102 Toxic sap from the cut twigs, mixed with blood and sweat, running unhindered down the Lord’s already sensitive forehead and face, would have added to the pain and trauma he endured during his ordeal.

The thorns of the crown were clearly driven into the Lord’s scalp: “And they . . . platted a crown of thorns, and put it about his head, . . . And they smote him on the head with a reed” (Mark 15: 17–19) The injured scalp can bleed profusely. The rich blood supply to the scalp is located in dense connective tissue just beneath the skin. Vasoconstriction that normally occurs in damaged blood vessels, which allows them to close and the bleeding to stop, cannot occur because of this dense tissue surrounding the vessels. The tight occipitofrontalis muscle, which stretches over the skull from back to front, prevents scalp lacerations from closing and also inhibits the constriction of bleeding vessels.103 Although it is well known that scalp lacerations may cause considerable blood loss,104 it is doubtful that even numerous puncture wounds alone will result in hemodynamically significant blood loss. In the Savior’s case, however, bleeding from many disparate causes contributed to a significant cumulative blood loss.

The skin, including that of the scalp, is supplied with nociceptive sensory nerve endings. Nociceptive nerve endings sense pain such as sharpness, aching, burning, or throbbing—sensations that piercing thorns would have elicited. These numerous piercings of the skin are what one generally imagines when considering the pain that a crown of thorns pressed into the scalp would elicit. The pain from the skin punctures, however, was probably not the most significant pain the Lord suffered from the crown of thorns. All bones, including the skull, are covered with a thin but very tough layer of tissue called periosteum. Periosteum contains blood vessels that provide the bone with nutrients, but it also has a plentiful supply of nociceptive nerve endings, causing it to be exceedingly sensitive to pain.105 Hori et al. determined that the average thickness of the scalp and galea of a male human in his early thirties is about 0.18 in (4.5 mm).106 This thickness is well within reach of the tips of the thorns. When pressed through the skin and underlying layers of tissue, the thorns would have punctured the periosteum, encountered the hard surface of the skull and been deflected, tracking between, and forcibly separating, the periosteum from the bone. The crown of thorns may have remained in place throughout the crucifixion, as is often shown in medieval art. Even if the crown had been removed prior to the crucifixion, thorns that would have undoubtedly broken off during the rough placement of the crown would have remained imbedded between the bone and periosteum of the skull. This pain together with irritation from the toxic sap would have persisted and worsened throughout his ensuing agony.

Aside from the dishonor and contempt it signified, the crown of thorns was a terribly painful and significant contribution to the suffering endured by the Savior.

Trauma related to clothing

The Lord’s clothing would have consisted of an inner garment or tunic, which in his case was woven without a seam, and an outer garment or mantle. Both articles were most likely made of wool, the fabric the populace would commonly have worn at the time.107

The fabric of the purple robe that was placed upon the Lord’s macerated back following his scourging is less predictable. The purple/scarlet color would have come from an extremely costly dye derived from a local shellfish.108 Because of its expense, the dye was available only to the political elite, and eventually it was reserved for royalty.109 One commentator claims that, “The nearer to the shade of clotted human blood that a manufacturer of the dye could manage to condense, the dearer his product.”110 Whose robe it was that was placed upon the Lord is unclear, but it may well have been Herod’s own since a “gorgeous robe,” of which there would not have been many, was placed upon the Lord while he was with Herod and before he was sent to Pilate. Such a valuable gift may have been the cause of Herod‘s and Pilate’s new friendship “And Herod . . . arrayed him in a gorgeous robe, and sent him again to Pilate. And the same day Pilate and Herod were made friends together: for before they were at enmity between themselves” (Luke 23:11–12). The robe may have been made of wool or of linen, but it may have even been made of silk, whose scarcity and value were more commensurate with the expensive dye.111

The text indicates that clothing was placed on, and removed from, the Savior’s back several times following the scourging. When he was scourged by Pilate (Matthew 27:26), his back would have been bare, yet Matthew states just two verses later that, “they stripped him and put on him a scarlet robe.” This implies that clothing (probably his own) had been placed back upon him following scourging, then removed before the scarlet robe was placed. This robe may or may not have been the same “gorgeous robe” that Herod had placed on him. After the robe had been placed upon his macerated back, the crown of thorns was placed, and he was mocked and abused. Some time later, the robe was removed, and his own clothes were again placed upon him (Matthew 27:31) before he began the long trek to Golgotha. Once there, his clothing was removed for the final time as he was positioned for crucifixion.

Wool, the fabric of which the Lord’s clothing was probably made, is composed of keratin protein, or collagen.112 Collagen promotes the adhesion and activation of platelets, which promote hemostasis, or the stoppage of bleeding. It also activates coagulation factor XII, which initiates the intrinsic pathway of blood coagulation and promotes hemostasis.113 Negatively charged substances on the surface of collagen accelerate the coagulation of blood and clot formation.114 Wool therefore adheres rather quickly to a bleeding surface and initially stops the hemorrhage. When woolen fabric is pulled away from a wound, however, clotted blood and bits of tissue are pulled away with the clothing, and bleeding resumes immediately. This would have reinjured the damaged muscle, blood vessels, and nerves and restarted the hemorrhage that had been temporarily staunched. Previously traumatized nerve endings were reinjured. It is quite unlikely that the other two who were to be crucified were subjected to this additional trauma and the accompanying hemorrhage and pain.

Linen and silk do not wick moisture well115 and would not have adhered to a bleeding surface. Instead, they would have allowed hemorrhage to continue. The fabric of the robe would have been less likely to adhere to his back than would his own clothing, were it woolen.

Carrying the cross

Christ was now tied to the wooden instrument upon which he was to be crucified, and he was compelled to carry it from the place at which he was scourged to Golgotha. The Lord steadfastly refused to allow himself to die, but in this part of his passion, we witness the only indication that his strength was waning. The shape, size, and weight of the cross may seem immaterial, but they are, in fact, quite essential for us to consider so that we may better appreciate what the Lord endured on our behalf.

The shape of the cross is controversial. The Greek word σταυρός (stauros, Strong’s #4716) is translated to Latin as crux and into English as cross ten times in the Gospels (Matthew 10:38, 16:24, 27:32; Mark 8:34, 15:21; Luke 9:23, 14:27, 23:26, 19:17; Hebrews 12:2). Stauros, however, does not imply any specific shape. According to Strong, stauros means “a stake or post (as set upright), i.e. (specially), a pole or cross (as an instrument of capital punishment).”116 The word as used in the New Testament is therefore of indeterminate shape.

Justin Lipsius, a learned seventeenth-century writer on the subject of the cross, categorized stauros by possible shapes. He termed a simple stake or pole as a crux simplex.117 A stauros with a crosspiece was a crux compacta118 and consisted of a stipes or upright post and a patibulum or crosspiece. A crux compacta in a Τ shape he called a crux commissa.119 A crux compacta in the shape of the traditional or Latin cross or † he called a crux immissa.120

A small minority of commentators believes that the stauros was simply a vertical stake (crux simplex).121 Dionysius, however, described the usual means of execution in the century before Christ, and a crosspiece of some type was involved:

A Roman citizen of no obscure station, having ordered one of his slaves to be put to death, delivered him to his fellow-slaves to be led away, and in order that his punishment might be witnessed by all, directed them to drag him through the Forum and every other conspicuous part of the city as they whipped him, and that he should go ahead of the procession which the Romans were at that time conducting in honour of the god. The men ordered to lead the slave to his punishment, having stretched out both his arms and fastened them to a piece of wood which extended across his breast and shoulders as far as his wrists, followed him, tearing his naked body with whips.122

Few deaths by crucifixion occur in modern times, and none have been studied scientifically. Beginning last century, investigators began conducting experiments on the effects of crucifixion to learn more about what Christ experienced.

In one of the first of these experiments, Mödder suspended healthy volunteers by their wrists alone and monitored their vital functions. He found that after just six minutes, respiratory tidal volume—the amount of air the individual was able to breathe in and out—had decreased by 70% and blood pressure had dropped nearly 50%. Cardiorespiratory collapse quickly ensued, and by twelve minutes, respiration had become totally dependent on the diaphragm, which is insufficient for long-term survival. Schulte found that if the volunteers were allowed to support themselves intermittently for twenty seconds at a time, their cardiorespiratory physiology improved greatly.123 In the case of the Lord, He would have been able to support himself intermittently, but agonizingly, upon the nail or nails driven through his feet. Similarly, Zugibe discovered that by binding the subject’s ankles to the post, breathing was no longer difficult since the subject could occasionally support himself by his feet.124 Despite Zugibe’s finding, however, it is clear that neither Christ nor the others crucified with him could have been suspended with arms directly overhead as none could have lived as long as they did.125

Most commentators agree instead that the cross of the Savior was a crux compacta, consisting of a stipes (vertical post) and a patibulum (crossbar). Catholics and Protestants, however, who represent the vast majority of Christians, honor the shape of the traditional Latin cross or † (crux immissa) as the true shape of the cross upon which Christ was crucified. The Catholic Encyclopedia reports: “The cross on which Jesus Christ was nailed was of the kind known as immissa.”126 Jowett refers to Lipsius and claims:

The third, and most common sort [of cross], was made of two pieces of wood crossed, so as to make four right angles. It was on this, according to the unanimous testimony of the fathers who sought to confirm it by Scripture itself (Lips. De Cruce, I.9), that our Saviour suffered.127

Lipsius, however, states only that it was a cross, but not which type of cross, so the unanimity of the fathers is suspect.

A crux commissa consists of a patibulum placed on top of the stipes in the shape of a Τ (Greek, tau). A graffito found in a hostel in Puteoli, Italy, dating to between the late first century and early second century AD, shows a crucarius with arms outstretched, affixed to a gibbet (the scaffold upon which an execution is performed) in the shape of a Τ. The marks on the back of the torso indicate that the victim had been scourged.128 Another graffito, dating to the first or second century AD depicts an individual again crucified on a Tau-shaped cross.129

Tertullian wrote that the Greek letter Τ (Tau) and the Latin letter T share the shape of the cross upon which Christ died. “For the very letter of the Greeks is Tau, and ours is T, a type of the cross.”130 Clement of Alexandria wrote “the character representing 300 [Τ] is, as to shape, the type of the Lord’s sign.”131 In a piece entitled “Trial in the Court of Vowels,” Lucian (125–180 AD) wrote:

Men weep, and bewail their lot, and curse Cadmus . . . for introducing Tau [Τ] into the family of letters; they say it was his body that tyrants took for a model, his shape that they imitated, when they set up the erections on which men are crucified.132

Τ remained the shape used to depict the cross of crucifixion until the time of Constantine.133

It was the custom for the condemned person to carry the gibbet to the site of execution, but did Christ carry the patibulum to a previously erected stipes at Golgotha or did he carry the entire stipes and patibulum already assembled? Despite tradition and the work of numerous artists, the latter option is quite unlikely for several reasons including the following.

It is impractical to dig a deep hole, erect and brace a crux immissa, unearth and remove afterward the entire crux, and transport the unwieldy apparatus to the site of the next trial to be reused. It is far more economical to reuse an implanted stipes with a removable patibulum.

In classical Latin texts . . . the individual to be crucified never carried a crux (vertical beam or entire cross) but only the patibulum (horizontal piece). When a criminal carried the patibulum, the crux (vertical beam, in this case) was already set in place. That implies that in John 19:17 Jesus only carried the horizontal member of the cross to Golgotha, since Pilate would have followed Roman procedure.134

The weight he carried was dependent on the shape and the type of wood of which the cross was constructed. No account dating from the time of the Lord has indicated the type of wood from which crosses were generally fashioned. Most accounts purporting to identify the type of wood are fanciful, and the remainder are simply speculative. Lipsius believed that it was made of oak.135 Oak trees were plentiful in the area around Jerusalem at the time of the Savior’s death. Other trees in the area at the time included fir, sycamore, sycomore (probably the same as the Egyptian fig-mulberry), sycomine (probably the same as the black mulberry), and terebinth.136 Cedar, olive, palm, and cypress were also present. Oak has a density of 35–60 lb/ft3 (600–900 kg/m3) and is somewhat denser than the others, which average about 15% less.137 The earliest legends claim that the cross was composed of three kinds of wood—cypress, cedar, and pine, but the Venerable Bede added box (ashur) to the list.138 In 1968, Tzakris found a nail within a heel bone that had been used for a crucifixion and identified the bit of attached wood as olive.139 While the stipes may have been made of olive wood, the type and therefore the density of the wood of the patibulum remains undetermined.

The dimensions of the patibulum are also unknown. If, however, the patibulum had measured a reasonable 6 ft x 12 in x 6 in (2 m x 15 cm x 10 cm), or 3 ft3 (0.085 m3) and were made of solid oak, it would have weighed between 100 and 130 lb (45–60 kg). Of course, reducing the amount of wood by 50% and using 15% lighter wood would make the patibulum lighter, but it could still weigh no less than 40 lb (18 kg).

If the cross were a crux immisa, the stipes, in all depictions, would be about twice as long as the patibulum. The combined weight would then be no less than 120 lb (136 kg) but could easily weigh much more. This is obviously more than most adult males can carry when healthy, let alone after hours of torture, injury, and lack of fluids and nutrition.

The one-half mile (0.8 km) path to Golgotha, would have been paved with uneven stones. There may have been steps and turns to negotiate. The terrain would have varied considerably as the path climbed to the top of the hill of crucifixion. The Savior likely stumbled often and sustained severe injuries to his head and face while carrying the heavy patibulum. Arms are important for maintaining balance, and with them immobilized against the patibulum, and in his weakened state, the Lord would have lost his balance often. When he did stumble, he could not catch himself and must have fallen repeatedly with the full weight of the crosspiece behind him. Although his face may have already been disfigured by the beatings he sustained during the trials, he certainly sustained additional severe facial trauma by these repeated falls against the pavement stones. Facial fractures may easily occur with such falls, but since apparently none of the Lord’s bones were broken, again the soft tissues bore the brunt of the trauma. The words of Isaiah, stating that the Savior’s “visage was so marred more than any man” (Isaiah 52:14) are again applicable. One reason I cannot believe the image on the Shroud of Turin is that of the Savior is because the face imprinted thereon appears so undamaged.

Eventually, because he no longer had sufficient energy to carry the patibulum, and conceivably because repeated head trauma from the beatings and the falls had rendered him nearly unconscious, the crossbar was given to Simon of Cyrene to carry in his place (Matthew 27:32; Mark 15:21; Luke 23:26).

To carry the patibulum the entire one-half mile to Golgotha would have expended about 475 CPH, but the distance he actually carried it is unknown, so the caloric expenditure cannot be calculated.140 However, having expended at least 1,500 calories in the Garden of Gethsemane, together with the stress and energy expenditure during the marches and punishment of the trials without any nutritional intake, his energy stores had become fully depleted. The Lord’s inability to carry the patibulum, which might have weighed as little as 40 lb, is further evidence that his condition was significantly worse than that of the usual victim.

The Lord likely continued the march to Golgotha without food or drink. Under such conditions, the muscles are severely affected by the lack of glycogen and are actually being consumed to generate needed energy. Resulting symptoms include muscle fatigue, muscle cramping, myalgia (muscle pain), tachycardia (rapid heart rate), dyspnea (shortness of breath), and tachypnea (rapid breathing).141

At Golgotha—the crucifixion

Few methods of execution can compare with the cruelty of crucifixion. It was designed to inflict the greatest amount of pain and indignity together with a prolonged death.

The manner of crucifixion

The messianic Psalm 22 describes some of the effects that the Savior experienced, as detailed in table 1.

Table 1. Effects mentioned in Psalm 22:14–18 and their meaning.

Verse

Wording

Medical Implications

14

I am poured out like water

My energy has been utterly consumed.

14

all my bones are out of joint

The weight of my body caused my shoulders and elbows to become dislocated within minutes of my being suspended.

14

my heart is like wax; it is melted in the midst of my bowels

Physically, my heart weakened and rapidly approached failure.

15

my strength is dried up like a potsherd

My energy was totally depleted resulting in complete exhaustion.

15

my tongue cleaveth to my jaws

I suffered intense thirst.

15

thou hast brought me into the dust of death

I was brought very close to death.

16

dogs have compassed me: the assembly of the wicked have inclosed me

Everyone was against me.

16

they pierced my hands and my feet

My hands and feet were pierced.

17

I can tell (count) all my bones

My skin was stretched so tightly that all my bones could be seen.

17

they look and stare upon me

My crucifixion was a public spectacle, and I was naked (or nearly so).

18

they part my garments among them, and cast lots upon my vesture

The soldiers cast lots for my clothing.

The crucifiers drove nails first through the Savior’s palms. They then somehow recognized that the nails might tear through the flesh of the palms, so they drove additional nails through his wrists so his weight would be adequately supported. Several reasonable inferences are listed here and discussed below.

1. Placing nails initially through the palms of the victim to be crucified must have been the usual practice.

2. Nails through the palms must generally have been sufficient for the purpose or else the more secure location would have been used initially.

3. Placing nails through the palms must have been preferable to placing them through the wrists alone.

4. The crucifiers were somehow able to ascertain immediately that, in this instance, nails through the palms alone would be insufficient.

5. The crucifiers were not able to make this determination until nails had been driven through both palms.

6. The crucifiers must have encountered this same situation previously because they knew what must be done as recourse and how to do it effectively.

Barbet was the first to study the mechanics of crucifixion. In an experiment with a cadaveric human hand and forearm, he drove “a square nail [with sides] of about 1/3 of an inch” between the metacarpal bones and into wood. Barbet estimated Christ’s height at 72 in (183 cm) because he was convinced of the authenticity of the Shroud of Turin, and he based his anthropometric data on the markings found thereon. That estimated height led him to estimate the Lord’s weight to have been 176 lb (80 kg). He therefore suspended a weight of 88 lb (40 kg)—half the estimated weight—from a severed forearm and found that the nail pulled eventually through the intact soft tissue and skin. By this single experiment and by using these figures to calculate the tension on the tissues of the hands,142 Barbet concluded that the stress on the palmar tissues was too great to believe that ether Christ or anyone else could have been crucified by placing nails through the palms alone.143 Zugibe points out correctly that Barbet’s was a single experiment based on inaccurate information. He also notes that, although no one has reproduced Barbet’s experiment, his conclusions continue to be universally accepted.144

Taylor estimates the Lord’s height at 66 in (168 cm)145 with an estimated weight of about 123 lb (56 kg). Others estimate his height at only 61 in (155 cm) and weight at 110 lb (50 kg).146 All estimates based on archeological and anthropological data are considerably less than Barbet’s estimate.147 Repeating the calculation for tension with the angle kept at 65°, but with a lower estimated weight of 120 lb (55 kg), the tension on each hand decreases to 142 lb (64.5 kg).148 Although this weight still exceeds by a considerable amount the 88 lb (40 kg) that Barbet found would tear through the tissues of the hand, additional mitigating circumstances must be considered.

Calculations for tension are valid only if the crucarius has no additional support, which was not the case. Crucarii were able to support themselves by standing on the nail in their feet, so the tension on the hands at the outset would be much less than that calculated. As the victim’s leg muscles became fatigued and cramped, more weight was necessarily placed on the nails in the hands. Soon the weight of the person’s body would cause the shoulders to dislocate, followed by the elbows and even the wrists; a Messianic psalm predicts “all my bones are out of joint” (Psalm 22:14). As the shoulders of a crucarius became dislocated, each arm might stretch as much as 6 in (15.25 cm).149 If the elbows and wrists dislocated as well, an additional three inches of length could have been the result. The outstretched arms of a crucarius of the average height at the time of 63 in (160 cm) were likely about 23 in (58.4 cm) long.150 By the time the joints had dislocated and his arms had gained an additional 6 in (15.25 cm), they might measure 29 in (73.66 cm). Barbet assumed the angle of the arms to be 65° from the vertical, but taking into account shorter arms and the additional distance, the true angle might actually be closer to 53°. The decreased angle of the arms from the vertical decreases the tension on the tissues of the hands to 98.6 lb (44.8 kg). If an additional three inches in arm length had occurred, the angle would have decreased to 46° and the tension would have decreased to 86.4 lb (39.3 kg).151

The tissues of the hand in question include the deep transverse metacarpal ligaments (DTML). These bind together adjacent metacarpal (hand) bones at the knuckles. Other than Barbet’s crude experiment, no information is available regarding the tensile strength of these ligaments. We do not know how the muscles (the interossei and lumbricals) between the metacarpal bones, or the tough palmar aponeurosis that lies between the skin of the palm and the metacarpals, handle such abuse.

The metacarpal interspace (between the bones) most likely to be pierced by a crucifying nail would have been between the index and middle or between the middle and ring finger metacarpals. The mean maximum distance (MMD) between metacarpal bones has not been reported in the medical literature. Using radiographs of the hands of adult men, I find the MMD between the index and middle metacarpal bones to be approximately 0.5 in (13 mm) while the distance between the middle and ring metacarpals is only about 0.25 in (7 mm). The distances may have been even less in those days because the men were of shorter stature. The few crucifixion nails that have been found are square and measure about 0.4 in (10 mm) in the smallest diameter or nearly 0.6 in (14 mm) from corner to corner.152 If a nail of that size had been driven into a palm, it would either have entered the space between the bones, or a metacarpal bone would have broken. If the nail had entered the relatively wide space between the index and middle bones, the DTML would have remained intact. If, however, the nail had entered the space between the middle and ring metacarpal bones, either an adjacent metacarpal bone would have fractured allowing the DTML to remain intact, or the DTML would have ruptured allowing the bones to remain intact. If the bone fractured, each of the DTMLs on either side of the broken metacarpal bone would have had to support only one-half of the tension, which could then have been as little as 43 lb (19.5 kg) apiece. This is only half of the 88 lb (40 kg) that Barbet used in his failed experiment. These data indicate that until disproven, it is possible that additional nails were not needed even when the palms alone were pierced.

Barbet stated that the width of the nail he used in his experiment measured only 1/3 in (8.3 mm).153 Although not stated in his report, it is unlikely, regardless of the interspace, that a nail driven through the palm would have fractured a metacarpal bone. With the nail between the bones, the entire 88 lb (40 kg) was placed on a single DTML, facilitating the failure of the soft tissue to support the weight.

After having placed nails through the palms, what then did the crucifiers observe that convinced them that those nails would be insufficient? The first indication might have been inadvertently placing the nail through the interspace between the index and middle metacarpal bones. Such placement would not support the victim because half of the body weight would be suspended on a single DTML. A second indication might have been seeing a diastasis (spreading) of the space between the knuckles of the middle and ring fingers. If the nail were placed through the narrow interspace between the middle and ring metacarpals, and a bone didn’t break, the DTML had to have torn, causing the diastasis.154

If we again assume that none of the Savior’s bones were broken (Psalm 34:20), I suggest that the crucifiers saw a diastasis due to a rupture of the DTML between the knuckles of the middle and ring fingers. They then drove additional nails through his wrists.

As a youth, the Savior worked with his hands as a tektōn (Mark 6:3). This Greek word was translated as “carpenter,” but it may also mean “woodworker” or “builder,” as in “architect” (“architektōn” master builder). This manual labor when young may have strengthened his bones so the DTMLs were more likely to tear rather than the metacarpal bones to fracture. Manske et al. found:

Physical activities, exercise, and sports provide a wealth and variety of mechanical loads to bones, through muscle forces, ground reaction forces, and other contact or impact forces. . . . Physical activity appears to be acutely beneficial for enhancing bone health in the early pubertal period.155

Perhaps his years of manual labor as a youth caused the bones of his hands to become stronger and more resistant to breakage than normal. The Lord’s hands may have been prepared for his crucifixion from an early age.

As the arms of a crucified individual stretched, the muscles, ligaments, nerves, and blood vessels stretched as well, as much as six inches.156 As nerves are progressively stretched, then overstretched, injury is the inevitable result. Mild stretching to the point of injury results in a condition known as neuropraxia. This condition is characterized by weakness of the muscles controlled by the nerves and severe burning or stinging pain of the enervated skin. Nerves may stretch approximately 15% before structural damage begins to occur.157

When the nerves are stretched further, to the point of becoming avulsed (torn), complete paralysis of the muscles and numbness of the skin is the result. This inevitably results in an injury to the brachial plexus, a group of nerves that exit the spinal cord between the fifth (of seven) cervical vertebra and the highest thoracic vertebra, T1. These nerves supply motor function to the muscles and sensory function to the skin of the upper extremities.158 The nerves most likely to be damaged would be the lower roots, termed T1 and C8. An injury to those nerve roots affects specifically the intrinsic muscles of the hand, the forearm muscles that flex the wrist and fingers, and the skin on the ulnar (little finger) side of the forearm and hand. Neuropraxia of these nerve roots is called Klumpke’s Palsy, while complete avulsion is known as Klumpke’s Paralysis.159 This type of injury is rarely sustained by adults these days and generally occurs either in a motorcycle wreck or by an individual grabbing onto a branch or a pole during a fall.160

Stretching a blood vessel causes its length to increase and the cross-sectional diameter of the lumen (inside of the vessel), to decrease. The flow inside is reduced dramatically by even a small decrease in the diameter since the flow is inversely proportional to the radius of the blood vessel raised to the fourth power. This means, for example, that if an artery constricts to one-half of its original radius, the resistance to flow will increase sixteen times. The length also affects blood flow, but only in proportion to its length. These factors, together with the overall decrease in blood volume and therefore blood pressure, and the arms being raised above the level of the heart, will cause the blood flow to the arm and hand to reduce drastically. This lack of blood flow causes an effect similar to placing a tourniquet resulting in further nerve damage due to lack of blood flow to the nerves. We have all felt this sensation temporarily when our arm or leg “goes to sleep.” Even worse, the arteries might have been avulsed (torn) by the stretching, causing additional blood loss into the tissues, depending on the blood pressure and flow to the elevated limbs.

Breathing occurs in two phases, inspiration and expiration, normally at a rate of about 12–18 times per minute.161 The chest wall is compliant, meaning that it can change its shape. The volume of the lungs increases with inspiration and decreases with expiration in two ways. First, the contraction and relaxation of the intercostal (between the ribs) muscles and by accessory muscles of respiration. Second, the dome-shaped diaphragm, a thin muscle that separates the abdominal cavity from the chest cavity, contracts and becomes flatter. This enlarges the chest cavity and draws air into the lungs. At rest, the chest wall normally assumes the configuration of complete exhalation with the diaphragm relaxed. Breathing is accomplished by active inhalation by contracting muscles and passive exhalation.162

The mechanics of breathing are radically altered by gravity when an individual is suspended vertically by outstretched arms with severely restricted movement. The weight of the suspended body changes the resting state from complete exhalation to complete inhalation in the same two ways. First, the intercostal and accessory muscles are stretched to the point that they must be actively contracted to allow exhalation. Second, the weight of the internal organs flattens the diaphragm so it can no longer relax and allow expiration. Breathing is now accomplished by active exhalation by a movement that allows the intercostal and other muscles of respiration to relax and by passive inhalation.163 Zugibe concluded otherwise, but his experiments using healthy volunteers do not accurately replicate the mechanics of a suspended individual either anatomically or temporally.164

As with nails being driven between unbroken metacarpals, a nail driven from front to back between the metatarsals would also have torn ligaments. Diastasis of the bones of the feet would have been even more pronounced, as the metatarsals are much closer together than are the metacarpals. The location of the nails would have traumatized the digital nerves on either side of both the metacarpal and metatarsal bones as well as the median and likely the saphenous nerves. The resultant pain would have been greatly intensified by the Lord having to put his entire weight alternately on the nails in his wrists and those in his feet to allow himself to inhale and exhale.

The only artifacts ever found of crucifixions are heel bones (calcanei, singular calcaneus) that had been transfixed with nails. One was found at Giv‘at ha-Mivtar, in northeast Jerusalem in 1968165 and the other in the village of Fenstanton, Cambridgeshire, England, in 2018.166 An intact calcaneus bone with a hole very reminiscent of a nail hole was found at Gavello, near Venice, Italy, in 2007, but the investigators cannot with certainty state that the bone was that of a crucarius because no nail is present. It is quite likely, however, that a nail had been placed, then removed and reused.167 The two illustrations of crucifixions that date to the period during which crucifixion was practiced show the victims’ feet affixed separately to the upright, in a manner reminiscent of the archeological evidence.168 This, however, does not allow any conclusion to be drawn regarding the manner in which the Lord was crucified. Methods may have varied with location and preference of those in charge. It should be noted that the bones of individuals crucified with nails driven between, rather than through, the metatarsals will show no evidence of trauma when unearthed centuries later. Nails driven through the calcanei would give a strikingly literal interpretation to Elohim’s declaration to Satan recorded in Genesis 3:15, “. . . thou shalt bruise his [the Savior’s] heel.”

The psalmist stated that Christ “keepeth all his bones: Not one of them is broken” (Psalm 34:20). Some may assume then that a nail or nails were driven from front to back between the metatarsals rather than through the heels. It may be claimed, however, that the calcanei mentioned above were pierced, but not actually broken, depending upon the definition of “broken.” Alternatively, it may be alleged that the psalmist was alluding only to the bones of the leg, although the qualifying words “not one of them” seem to imply otherwise. In short, just how the nails were placed in the Lord’s feet is unresolved.

The first of only two ways for the Lord to exhale with hands and feet fixated in a vertical position would be for him to stand on the nail or nails in his feet. If the nails had been driven through the feet from front to back, the soles of the feet would have been flat against the stipes, and his knees would have necessarily been flexed. Alternatively, nails placed through the calcanei would have allowed the knees nearly to straighten, but the center of mass of the body would have been just in front of the feet. In either case, straightening the legs and locking the knees to support his weight would have been impossible.

Having to push himself upright as much as possible to exhale would result in agonizing pain both in his feet and in his muscles and could not be sustained long. Then, taking the weight off the nails in his feet, he would have to hang temporarily from the nails in his wrists. By alternating these movements, he could fill and empty his lungs. He would also have to pull himself up by the arms as much as possible. Stretching of the arm and chest muscles would significantly compromise the ability of an individual to pull himself up to exhale.

If one is forced to stand with knees only slightly flexed or at 45°, cramping of the quadriceps muscles (front of the thighs) will begin within minutes.169 The tendency would be to attempt to straighten the body as much as possible, but that would cause the macerated skin of the back to rub agonizingly against the rough wood of the stipes.

The second way for the Lord to exhale would be to contract his abdominal muscles strongly, which would force his diaphragm to elevate. This unnatural abdominal breathing pattern could not be sustained long either, due to fatigue of the abdominal muscles, which were not designed to function in that manner. Following a prolonged period of torture, with every movement exquisitely agonizing, breathing would eventually become impossible and death by asphyxia would occur. A normal respiratory rate at rest is about 12 to 18 breaths per minute, but the Lord could never remain at rest for long. It is unlikely, however, that the Lord was able to exhale completely. This would have necessarily led to a more rapid breathing rate in order to move the same amount of air in and out each minute. The inability to do so would lead to the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream and a decrease in oxygenation, both indications of progressive respiratory failure.

The return of the agony of Gethsemane

Strictly speaking, the Garden was not the place of the Savior’s greatest suffering since the same agony returned to compound the anguish the Lord was already enduring in his final hours on the cross.170 Talmage wrote, “It seems, that in addition to the fearful suffering incident to crucifixion, the agony of Gethsemane had recurred.”171 At the sixth hour, after the Lord had hung on the cross for three hours, the sky grew dark and remained so until his death at the ninth hour (Mark 15:33, Luke 23:44). It was during these final three hours that Christ re-experienced the recent three hours of agony in Gethsemane, intensifying the anguish he was already enduring.172

As the moment of the Lord’s death drew nigh, this time his Father sent no comforting angel. Jeffrey R. Holland explained that the Father had to withdraw his Spirit from the Savior because

For His Atonement to be infinite and eternal, He had to feel what it was like to die not only physically but spiritually, to sense what it was like to have the divine Spirit withdraw, leaving one feeling totally, abjectly, hopelessly alone.173

The Lord, sensing keenly the absence of any divine support, exclaimed, “My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?” (Matthew 27:46). During his mortal mission, Christ had experienced nearly all that a mortal individual could experience. Until Gethsemane, however, and again in the waning hours of his life, he had never experienced the effect that sin has on an individual, having never been spiritually separated from God. Mortals are quite familiar with the feeling of divine separation since we experience it often. Even worse, the sensation has unfortunately become all too commonplace, and for many individuals it has become the norm. But to the Savior, experiencing separation from the presence of his Father was a new and devastatingly painful experience. After having sustained trauma, both physical and spiritual, that should have already proven fatal, the Savior was left to himself for possibly those final three hours. Crucified, experiencing again the despair of Gethsemane, devoid of his Heavenly Father’s support, and without the succor this time of a ministering angel, the Lord was supported in his agony only by those who wept at the foot of the cross.

With the recurrence of Gethsemane’s anguish, the extreme expenditure of energy demanded by the SAM (fight or flight) response would have recurred. Perhaps the hematidrosis he had experienced in the Garden of Gethsemane recurred as well. This time it would have gone unnoticed because of the blood that must already have covered the Savior’s body from head to toe.

Postulated Mechanisms of the Lord’s Death

Numerous attempts to identify the specific mechanism of the physical death of Jesus Christ have been made, as summarized by Habermas et al.174 None consider the possibility that the Lord’s mortal body had been injured beyond normal human limits well before he finally died—possibly even before his arrest. It is beyond the scope of this study to review every theory, but several recent and/or more comprehensive articles are presented to illustrate the diversity of opinions regarding the trauma he did sustain.

The heart

William Stroud was the first in modern times to discuss the mechanism of Christ’s death, which he believed was due to cardiac rupture.175 James E. Talmage, a former apostle of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints;176 Lund, a former Seventy of the Church;177 Bennett;178 Bergsma;179 and Ball180 agree with the ruptured heart theory. This idea has become popular because the majority of these authors believe, as Lund states, that the Lord’s death was due to grief expressed as a rupture of the heart.

In 1994, Holoubek and Holoubek studied the Shroud of Turin for evidence of the mechanism of death. They arrived at no specific conclusion but implicated both hemorrhage leading first to hypovolemia and then to shock, and exhaustion leading first to weakness and then to asphyxia as contributing factors. They proposed, however, that cardiac arrhythmia may have been the final mechanism of death.181

W. Reid Litchfield summarized various prevailing theories regarding the physical mechanism of Christ’s death from a Latter-day Saint perspective and agreed that Christ died from cardiac arrhythmia.182 Davis cited the related but more generalized concept of heart failure as the mechanism of death.183 Bucklin agrees with congestive heart failure.184

Le Bec attributed the Lord’s death to a “nervous exhaustion” that led to syncope and “fainting of the heart.”185

The lungs

Ineffective respiration leads to hypoxemia (a decrease in blood oxygen). This causes capillaries to dilate and serum to leak into the extra-vascular space. Circulating blood volume decreases and blood pressure falls even further. Blood is initially redirected from the muscles to the heart and central nervous system. Decreased pressure exacerbates hypoxia (a decrease in levels of oxygen in the tissues), however, and the vicious cycle worsens until organs begin to fail.186

Hyneck believed that the mechanism of the Lord’s death was suffocation, citing a form of torture he had seen in 1914—performed by members of the Austro-German Army during WWI—called anbinden.187 Mödder reported experiments in which he tied the arms of medical student volunteers to crosses and observed the rapidly detrimental effect of such immobilization on respiratory function.188 Father G. Delorey related first-hand observations of experiments conducted by Nazis in which doomed prisoners were tied to crosses. He reported that “after their hanging for one hour the victims could no longer exhale the air that filled their chest” and “only at the end of the torture, when the victim’s strength failed, did asphyxiation take place, generally within two to four minutes.”189 Brenner suggested that the mechanism of death was a pulmonary embolism (a blood clot that travels to the lungs and prevents blood flow).190

Pierre Barbet used corpses to study the effects of crucifixion. From these experiments and from his analysis of the Shroud of Turin, he concluded that the Savior had died of asphyxia.191 Tzaferis also attributed death on the cross to asphyxia.192 Wijffels believed that acidosis alone was the mechanism of death.193

The loss of blood

Hemorrhage without fluid replacement will inexorably deplete the amount of blood in the circulatory system. For the Lord’s estimated weight, blood loss exceeding one pint (500 mL) would have mildly lessened his blood pressure and the blood flow to his brain. Blood loss over three pints (1,500 mL) would have caused a severe loss of mental acuity due to lack of oxygen, a condition called shock. It is impossible to know how much blood the Lord lost first in Gethsemane and later from beatings, scourging, the crown of thorns, and the crucifixion; but three pints is hardly an unreasonable estimated amount.

Orthostatic hypotension is the decline in blood pressure that results from being in the upright position. It is a function of gravity, which resists the return of blood from the lower body to the heart and the outflow of blood from the heart to the brain. Orthostatic hypotension is significantly worsened if the heart is weak and cannot pump strongly, or if the amount of blood in the circulatory system is low, generally due to bleeding. The Lord would certainly have experienced orthostatic hypotension from being constrained in the upright position for hours and that hypotension would have contributed significantly to low blood low to his brain and internal organs.

Several investigators including Tenney194 concluded that traumatic shock was the mechanism of death. Zugibe was also intrigued by the Shroud of Turin and he, too, recruited volunteers to undergo simulated crucifixion by being suspended by their wrists with outstretched arms. Mödder and Barbet had found that no subject could survive more than several minutes while being suspended by their wrists alone, but Zugibe discovered that by binding the subject’s ankles to the post, breathing was no longer difficult since the subject could occasionally support himself by his feet. He concluded that hemorrhagic shock, not asphyxia, was the true mechanism of death.195 As mentioned earlier, his findings and conclusions are compromised by his methodology of employing healthy volunteers, who were allowed to rest whenever they developed muscle cramps or experienced discomfort.

Eduard et al. believe that the mechanism of the Lord’s death on the cross was disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC).196 DIC occurs when the clotting mechanisms in the blood become overactive as a result of infection or trauma. This leads to blood clots forming in the blood vessels and blocking blood flow to vital organs. If unchecked, the clotting factors are exhausted and unchecked bleeding, both externally and internally, will occur.197 It is quite appropriate that the Lord instituted at the Last Supper the practice of partaking of wine (later water). As with the sacramental bread that he instituted as a symbol of the energy that was drained from his body, fluid is the very substance that could have counteracted the hypovolemia and resultant hypotension that contributed to his death.

Exposure

Following his ordeal in Gethsemane, the Lord’s sweat- and blood-drenched clothes in the cold of a springtime Jerusalem night—the average nighttime temperature is 51°F (10.5°C) on 4 April—surely left him uncomfortably chilled.198 This sensation must have been heightened by skin rendered hypersensitive as a sequela of the hematidrosis discussed previously.

Upon his arrival at Golgotha, the soldiers “parted his garments, casting lots: that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the prophet” (Matthew 27:35). Matthew is referring here to the psalmist who wrote, “They parted my garments among them, and upon my vesture did they cast lots” (Psalm 22:18; see table 1). The Savior’s unprotected body was now exposed to the elements. While all three victims were ostensibly subjected equally to the effects of exposure, the Savior would have been more susceptible than the others to those effects because of exhaustion and the additional trauma including the hematidrosis he had experienced in Gethsemane.

When the body can produce sufficient heat to offset loss, core body temperature will remain normal. Clearly the conditions at the time of the crucifixion of the Savior may only be estimated, but examining the evidence we do have is instructive. Heat is produced through passive metabolic functions and through exertion, including active movements and shivering. Affixed to the cross, his movements, including the ability to shiver, were severely limited. Even more important, his energy was spent.

Conversely, heat loss would have been substantial. The rapidity of heat loss from the body is determined by the temperature of the environment and by the amount of insulating clothing the individual is wearing. We do not know for certain whether the Lord was entirely unclothed or was allowed a modest loincloth as depicted in Medieval and Renaissance artwork. It is, however, quite possible that he was unclothed because the soldiers had claimed his clothing (John 19:23–24), and cruciarii were meant to be humiliated as much as possible. However, if the Romans acquiesced to Jewish modesty, a small covering might have been permitted.199 If the individual’s clothing or skin were saturated because of sweat, blood, or rain; heat loss would be much more likely to exceed the internal generation of heat. Under such circumstances, an individual will lose body heat 25 times more rapidly than under dry conditions, both because water conducts heat away from the body much more quickly than does air and because the evaporation of water is a cooling process.200 Currently, the average daytime temperature in Jerusalem on 11 April is about 60°F (16°C), ranging between 50° and 68°F (10° to 21°C),201 with the temperature lower in the mornings and increasing during the day.202 John relates that it was cold enough in the early morning hours that people were warming themselves around open fires (John 18:18). Luke notes, however, that beginning at the sixth hour, or noon, when the air temperature would normally begin rising, “a darkness [fell] over all the earth until the ninth hour. And the sun was darkened” (Luke 23:44–45). It is safe to assume that the air temperature either remained cool or more likely became even colder during the final three hours of the Savior’s life. Neither thunder nor lightning is mentioned in the New Testament accounts as they are in the Book of Mormon (3 Nephi 8:5–7). No mention of rain is made in either account, only of a “storm” and “tempest.” Regardless, the Lord’s skin was certainly wet from perspiration after having carried the cross as far as he did. His back was raw and weeping blood and body fluid. His head and neck would have been damp with blood, perspiration, and probably tears, contributing significantly to evaporative heat loss since nearly half of heat loss is through the head and neck.203 Any wind associated with the storm would have accelerated evaporative heat loss, a process known as wind chill.204 Wind chill is not calculated for temperatures above 50°F (10°C),205 but although minimal, it still exists, and a decrease of even a few degrees is significant to a dying person.

Early effects of hypothermia include shivering, feelings of exhaustion, sleepiness, goose bumps, confusion, and hyperventilation. As the core body temperature continues to decrease, the risk of cardiac arrhythmias increases, notably atrial fibrillation, atrioventricular block, and ventricular fibrillation.206 As body temperature drops further, hypothermia becomes the instigating factor in the highly lethal “trauma triad of death.” This triad consists of hypothermia, coagulopathy, and acidosis.207 Coagulopathy refers to the inability of the blood to clot properly, a temperature dependent and cyclically worsening process.208 It would have led to deepening hypovolemic shock by prolonging the bleeding caused by scourging. In his efforts to breathe, the Lord’s back would have scraped against the rough wood of the stipes, reopening wounds that then bled unchecked due to the hypothermia-induced coagulopathy. The acidity of the blood is normally maintained within a very narrow range. Deranged metabolism, including low blood pressure and poor perfusion of tissues and organs, would have built up lactic and other acidic products of metabolism in his bloodstream. This condition is known as metabolic acidosis. A second type of acidosis is due to inadequate breathing, as mentioned above, which allows carbon dioxide to accumulate in the bloodstream. This raises the level of carbonic acid, creating respiratory acidosis. A combined metabolic and respiratory acidosis, as the Savior experienced, is particularly lethal, with a mortality rate of 57% among patients in the intensive care unit.209

Exhaustion

Benjamin preached that Christ suffered “pain of body, hunger, thirst, and fatigue, even more than man can suffer, except it be unto death; for behold, blood cometh from every pore” (Mosiah 3:7). This very important and illuminating verse reveals two significant truths regarding the Lord’s suffering. The phrase “except it be unto death” indicates that the Lord’s mortal body was taxed beyond normal survivability. Furthermore, by focusing on “pain of body, hunger, thirst, and fatigue” Benjamin specifies the physical nature of the Lord’s suffering and places it squarely within the realm of extreme physical exhaustion.

I believe that Benjamin is relating that the severe injury the Lord sustained in Gethsemane was due to complete, thorough, and absolute exhaustion of all available internal energy stores. The Lord’s exertions in the Garden taxed his physical body beyond its limit and left it without sufficient energy to perform adequately its necessary functions. Severe exhaustion and the effects of excessive epinephrine may well have manifested in the form of cardiac failure, cardiac arrhythmia, or myocardial infarction, all of which have been recognized as common mechanisms of death among marathon runners.210 The importance of complete exhaustion in the Lord’s sufferings is further suggested by a Messianic psalm, the opening statement of which reads: “I am poured out like water . . . My strength is dried up like a potsherd” (Psalm 22:14, 15; see table 1).

Spiritual encounters are often taxing to a mortal body. In the Bible, Abram collapsed when God spoke to him (Genesis 17:3), and Joshua collapsed in the presence of the Lord (Joshua 5:14, 15), as did Ezekiel (Ezekiel 1:28, 3:23), Daniel (Daniel 8:17, 10:15), Peter, James, and John (Matthew 17:6), Paul (Acts 9:4, 26:14), and John (Revelation 1:17). In the Book of Mormon, Alma lost his strength during a spiritual experience (Mosiah 27:19), as did King Lamoni (Alma 18:42). Joseph Smith was left weak after the First Vision (Joseph Smith—History 1:20) and after his initial encounter with Moroni (Joseph Smith—History 1:48). Several years later, however, he calmly received the revelation contained in Section 76 of the Doctrine and Covenants. However, “Sidney [Rigdon] sat limp and pale, apparently as limber as a rag, observing which, Joseph remarked, smilingly, ‘Sidney is not used to it as I am.’”211 Why a spiritual encounter may cause weakness and exhaustion is unclear from a physical viewpoint. In these instances, relatively minor spiritual interactions produced significant physical effects. The incomprehensible amount of spiritual interaction required of the Lord while taking upon himself the Infinite Atonement may have contributed to the damage his physical body incurred.

Most commentators would not recognize the possibility that Christ’s physical body had been severely wounded in Gethsemane because there was no indication that either his outward appearance or demeanor had changed. We know that his clothing was bloodstained,212 but this would not have been noticeable at his nighttime apprehension. By the time daylight arrived, his clothing may have become much more bloodstained as a result of the inhumane treatment inflicted upon him. He emerged from Gethsemane seemingly unscathed, but in reality, his physical body must have been severely injured.

Other relevant theories

Several researchers have concluded that the mechanism of the Savior’s death either could not be determined with accuracy or was multifactorial. Davis attributed death to hemorrhage, severe fatigue, asphyxia, hypovolemia, pericardial effusion, shock, and heart failure.213

In 1986, the Journal of the American Medical Association published a comprehensive and detailed article by Edwards, Gabel, and Hosmer entitled “On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ.”214 The bibliography of that seminal article contains forty references to articles concerning the medical aspects of the Savior’s death. Although several treatises on the topic had been published in state medical journals, this essay was a controversial inclusion in a lay scholarly journal. It was followed quickly by harsh criticism from numerous respondents, who called the article “an apology for the Christian faith, yet it masquerades as a scientific study,”215 “anti-Semitism,”216 and “particularly offensive . . . pseudointellectual and maudlin”217 among numerous other slurs. Nonetheless, the article has been cited in over 270 publications and remains a landmark report on the subject. Edwards et al. were unable to conclude whether the Savior died of hypovolemic shock, exhaustion, asphyxia, acute heart failure, fatal cardiac arrhythmia, cardiac rupture, hypoxia, hypovolemia, altered coagulation state, or friable vegetations (delicate tissue growths or deposits that may break off) on cardiac valves with subsequent embolization and myocardial infarction. They preferred, however, either cardiac rupture or cardiorespiratory failure.

Retief and Cilliers suggested that the mechanism of the Lord’s death was multifactorial. They cited the effects of scourging such as hypovolemic shock from hemorrhage and dehydration. He might also have sustained rib fractures causing a collapsed lung. Internal bleeding around the lung or around the heart would have led to respiratory and cardiac failure, respectively. Ultimately, they believed the mechanism of death was cardiac arrest, the result of a severely low blood oxygen level.218

Maslen and Mitchell, writing in 2006 in the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, concluded that the mechanism of death of crucarii most likely varied from victim to victim.219

Finally, there are those who believe that, although tortured, crucified, and pronounced dead, and after a spear had been thrust into his chest, Christ survived his injuries.220 The so-called swoon hypothesis proposes that Christ merely fainted on the cross but was removed by his friends and revived with spices and ointments.221

The counterargument to this fanciful notion is medically irrefutable. Active movement is required for a crucarius to breathe. When movement and therefore breathing cease due to fainting (syncope), “permanent brain damage [will begin] after only 4 minutes without oxygen, and death can occur as soon as 4 to 6 minutes later.”222 When soldiers arrived to break the legs of the crucarii, they found Christ dead, in their opinion. Rather than break his legs, they stabbed him in the chest to make certain (John 19:32–35) and reported their findings back to Pilate (Mark 15:44–45). There was no doubt in the mind of these experienced centurions that Christ was dead (Matthew 27:54). “When the even was come, there came a rich man of Arimathæa, named Joseph, who also himself was Jesus’ disciple: He went to Pilate, and begged the body of Jesus. Then Pilate commanded the body to be delivered” (Matthew 27:57–58). A considerable length of time had clearly passed between the time the soldiers determined that the Lord had died and when his body was released to Joseph. Even if his body had been removed from the cross by the time Joseph received it, it still took time to dismantle the cross and remove the nails from his hands and feet—certainly longer than ten minutes. During this time, Christ was constantly being observed. Oxygen is carried by red blood cells, which were in very short supply following his experiences over the past day or days. If the Lord were breathing so little that it was unnoticeable, he could not have been breathing enough to circulate sufficient oxygen to stay alive. After such a prolonged period of time without oxygen, no amount of CPR, IV fluid, pharmacologic agents, blood transfusions, ventilators, and intensive care treatment—even if it had been available—could have resuscitated the Savior, particularly when his body had been so severely traumatized.223

As terrible as the Lord’s suffering was, his agony was insufficient payment for the entire price of sin. At no point could he have said, “It is enough, the debt is paid,” and miraculously descended from the cross to resume his ministry. The Lord could have survived his crucifixion had he desired, but his offering had to be sealed with his death so that he, and we, could be resurrected.224 It is unpleasant to consider the manner in which the Lord died, but together with his blood, we are commanded to reflect weekly on the Lord’s traumatized body as we partake of the Sacramental bread and water, “in remembrance of the body/blood of thy Son” (Doctrine and Covenants 20:77, 79).

How Did Christ Survive Gethsemane?

How detrimental to the Savior’s physical body was his experience in the Garden of Gethsemane? The Book of Mormon prophet and king, Benjamin, gives an unambiguous declaration regarding the magnitude of the Lord’s suffering in Gethsemane when he said in Mosiah 3:7, “[The Lord] shall suffer temptations, and pain of body, hunger, thirst, and fatigue, even more than man can suffer, except it be unto death, for behold, blood cometh from every pore.” In other words, the Lord sustained injury sufficient to kill a mere mortal.

Talmage explained that the Lord’s suffering was a combination of physical pain, mental anguish, and spiritual agony:

Christ’s agony in the garden is unfathomable by the finite mind, both as to intensity and cause. . . . He struggled and groaned under a burden such as no other being who has lived on earth might even conceive as possible. It was not physical pain, nor mental anguish alone, that caused him to suffer such torture as to produce an extrusion of blood from every pore; but a spiritual agony of soul such as only God was capable of experiencing.225

The fact that the Lord experienced suffering that only God could experience without perishing is not appreciated by everyone. Some believe that his suffering in Gethsemane was no more than what we mortals must occasionally face. Rather, as expressed further by Talmage, “No other man, however great his powers of physical or mental endurance, could have suffered so; for his human organism would have succumbed, and syncope would have produced unconsciousness and welcome oblivion.”226

We cannot know all of the physiologic consequences or the extent of their effect on the Savior’s mortal body as a result of the unimaginable agony of Gethsemane. Appropriately, what he did there was accomplished in private without fanfare and without onlookers.

Benjamin informs us that, as a result of that experience, death should have been the expected result. Until relatively recent times, to remain alive, an organism had to support its own existence. Because of medical advances, however, the ability to keep an individual, whose body cannot maintain itself, alive by the use of external support until the vital organs can regain sufficient function, is now routine. When the Lord died on the cross, his heart stopped beating, respiratory movement ceased, and his spirit departed his body. I believe, therefore, that following the severities of Gethsemane, Christ must have kept himself alive by applying internal resuscitative methods of which he had knowledge, but of which we have very limited understanding—in other words, the fact that he healed himself and remained alive was evidence of his divine parentage and his ability to control his own mortality.

Following the strenuous events in the Garden of Gethsemane—events which would have been fatal to purely mortal bodies—the question was one of timing only. When he fully completed the mission he was sent to do and had made the Atonement efficacious in behalf of all mankind, the Lord declared his work finished and he “gave up the ghost” (Matthew 27:50, Mark 15:37, Luke 23:46; John 19:30).

Summary and Conclusions

Evidence has been presented to support the following conclusions:

1. Christ’s physical body was severely injured in Gethsemane. The degree of physical trauma incurred by the Lord in the Garden of Gethsemane is vastly unrecognized. That unquantifiable and nearly invisible trauma was likely very injurious to his physical body.

2. The severe injury the Lord sustained in Gethsemane may have been due to glycogen depletion and the adverse effects of excessive catecholamines. The Lord was subjected to three hours of superhuman spiritual and physical exertion. A prolonged surge in epinephrine levels would have caused his glucose levels to escalate and his glycogen stores to plummet.

3. Beginning at some point, the Lord’s physical body had to be divinely assisted. This may have occurred as early as in the Garden of Gethsemane. As a result of his exertions there, both the lack of available energy and the consequences of excessive epinephrine could have precipitated a cardiac event such as an arrhythmia or a myocardial infarction. At the least, severe exhaustion due to depleted energy stores might have severely incapacitated his physical body. His mortal capabilities to sense and react to pain were not diminished.

4. The Lord’s mortal body was kept alive by his divine will. Following an accumulation of trauma sufficient enough to critically injure his physical body, the Lord kept his body alive by manipulating his physiologic status. Willingly he continued on to suffer further physical abuse, including scourging at the hands of the Romans and Jews, fulfilling prophecy. He then suffered the agony and indignity of crucifixion.

5. The trauma the Lord suffered after Gethsemane was not the cause of his death, but it was necessary for him to complete the Atonement. The scriptures contain details about the death of the Savior that had to be fulfilled. Hours before, he had instituted the sacrament in remembrance of the offering of his body and the shedding of his blood, and he was committed to do so. He was the sacrificial lamb that had to be offered as an end to the practice of animal sacrifices. His blood had to be shed and we were to be healed by his stripes.

6. The Lord’s death was a passive rather than active event. Assuming that an active event was the cause of the Lord’s death, investigators have searched inconclusively for a specific mechanism. I believe, however, that throughout his ordeal, the Lord was combatting a mounting list of severe injuries, any one of which would have been fatal at any time had he permitted it.

7. He allowed his spirit to escape his fatally injured body only when it suited his purpose. The degree of trauma sustained by the Lord was sufficient for him to have died long before he did. He chose, however, to endure the pain and suffering on our behalf and not to die until the appropriate moment. This will be explored in a future manuscript.

Christ’s was and will be the only death of its kind in the history of the world because he alone had power to lay down his life. He therefore was, is, and ever will be, the only being to have control over death in such a manner. Christ had always been fully aware of the prophesied manner in which he must die, but he proceeded regardless.

Although tens of thousands of people have died by cruel crucifixion, the Savior’s death was voluntary as opposed to the deaths of all others, who were powerless to save themselves. The efficacy of the Savior’s Atonement lies in its voluntary nature. It was also preceded by, and magnified by, the Lord’s agonizing experience in the Garden of Gethsemane. We have no comprehension of the manner by which the suffering voluntarily endured by the Savior can somehow generate the celestial currency required to pay for the sins committed by mankind. A similar awful exchange rate must be in effect for those who choose not to avail themselves of the merciful gift of repentance (Doctrine and Covenants 19:16–17).

If the deductions and conclusions are as described, our feeling of indebtedness for what Christ endured on our behalf should deepen. The realization that Christ was capable of avoiding the ordeal he knew he was about to endure but he proceeded nonetheless, willingly and voluntarily, is overwhelming to the natural mind that is by instinct so entirely preoccupied with self-preservation. The degree of self-control he would have had to exert not to diminish his suffering in any way, whether obvious or clandestine, is astonishing and humbling. Most assuredly do we stand all amazed.

[Author’s Note: I am indebted to my wife, Ruth, for her patience in allowing me the time and latitude to delve into this important subject. The editorial assistance and encouragement from Godfrey Ellis has been indispensable. I am particularly indebted to a long-time friend, Anne Biggs, who urged me to examine the greatest event since Creation.]

C. Thomas Black, MD, earned undergraduate and graduate degrees from Brigham Young University in Microbiology before attending and graduating from Baylor College of Medicine in Houston in 1979. He completed residencies in General Surgery, then Pediatric Surgery, and obtained Board Certification in Adult Surgery, Surgical Critical Care, and Pediatric Surgery. He was Associate Professor of Surgery and Pediatrics at the University of Texas Medical School in Houston before beginning private practice in pediatric surgery in Dallas. He and his wife of fifty years serve as ordinance workers in the Dallas Texas Temple. They have six sons and 12 grandchildren.

1 . Thomas S. Monson, “They Showed the Way,” Ensign, May 1997, 52, churchof
jesuschrist.org/study/general-conference/1997/04/they-showed-the-way.

2 . James E. Faust, “The Atonement: Our Greatest Hope,” Ensign, November 2001, 18, churchofjesuschrist.org/study/general-conference/2001/10/the
-atonement-our-greatest-hope.

3 . “Again, Our Dear Redeeming Lord,” Hymns, no. 179.

4 . Such a statement should not be surprising, as there are other occurrences in Jesus’s life that are unexplainable by medical means alone, such as his conception and birth.

5 . Adebayo Adeyinka and Keneisha Bailey, “Death Certification,” StatPearls, 17 April 2023, ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526015/.

6 . “We believe that Jesus was fully human in that He was subject to sickness, to pain and to temptation. We believe Jesus is the Son of God the Father and as such inherited powers of godhood and divinity from His Father, including immortality, the capacity to live forever. While He walked the dusty roads of Palestine as a man, He possessed the powers of a God and ministered as one having authority, including power over the elements and even power over life and death.” Robert L. Millet, “What Latter-day Saints Believe About Jesus Christ,” LDS Newsroom, newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/article
/what-mormons-believe-about-jesus-christ.

7 . Joseph Henry Thayer, A Greek English Lexicon of the New Testament (New York: American Book, 1886), s.v. “ταράσσω,” 615, christianresearcher.com
/uploads/1/6/2/9/16298120/01greekenglishlexicongrimmthayer.pdf.

8 . John Hilton III and Joshua P. Barringer, “The Use of ‘Gethsemane’ by Church Leaders: 1859–2018,” BYU Studies Quarterly 58, no. 4 (2019): 49–76, scholarsarchive.byu.edu/facpub/3671/.

9 . Jessica Brodie, “What Is the Garden of Gethsemane and Why Was It So Crucial to Jesus’ Life?,” Bible Study Tools, last updated 27 March 2024, biblestudy
tools.com/bible-study/topical-studies/why-is-the-garden-of-gethsemane
-so-crucial-to-jesus-life.html.

10 . William Lane Craig, “Why Jesus’ Agony in the Garden?,” The Good Book Blog, 21 June 2019, biola.edu/blogs/good-book-blog/2019/why-jesus-agony
-in-the-garden.

11 . “The Agony In the Garden,” Today’s Catholic, 17 March 2015, todayscatholic
.org/the-agony-in-the-garden/.

12 . Steve Shirley, “Can you describe Jesus’ physical sufferings on His final day?,” Jesus Alive, jesusalive.cc/jesus-sufferings-final-day/.

13 . Martin Pable, “Lessons from Jesus’ Agony in the Garden,” St. Anthony Messenger, March 2018, franciscanmedia.org/st-anthony-messenger/march
-2018/lessons-from-jesus-agony-in-the-garden/.

14 . Friedrich Justus Knecht, “The Agony of Jesus in the Garden,” A Practical Commentary on Holy Scripture (St. Louis: B. Herder, 1910), LXIX:653–54, ecatholic2000.com/knecht/untitled-166.shtml.

15 . “The death and resurrection of Jesus,” BBC (website), bbc.co.uk/bitesize
/guides/zdryd6f/revision/5.

16 . Brodie, “What is the Garden of Gethsemane?”

17 . Micheal Maynard, “The Anguish of Gethsemane,” Sweetwater Now, 9 April 2017, sweetwaternow.com/the-anguish-of-gethsemane/.

18 . Mendie Skarp, “Learning from Jesus’ Prayer in the Garden,” Berean Blog, 30 March 2021, bereanmn.com/berean-blog/learning-from-jesus-prayer
-in-the-garden/.

19 . Gerrit Scott Dawson, “Agony in the Garden: What Jesus Suffered in Gethsemane,” Desiring God, 13 April 2022, desiringgod.org/articles/agony-in
-the-garden.

20 . Knecht, “The Agony,” 653–54.

21 . James E. Talmage, Jesus the Christ, 3rd ed. (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1915), 613, archive.org/details/jesusthechrist1915.

22 . Gilbert Sterling Octavius et al., “Systematic review of hematidrosis: Time for clinicians to recognize this entity,” World J Dermatol 1, no. 2 (2023): 7–29, wjg
net.com/2218-6190/full/v11/i2/7.htm. Jacalyn Duffin, “Sweating blood: history and review,” Canadian Medical Association Journal 189, no. 42 (23 October 2017): E1315–17, ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5654990/.

23 . Debra Jaliman, “What Is Hematidrosis?,” WebMD, 3 February 2020, webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/hematidrosis-hematohidrosis. Édouard Le Bec, “Le Supplice de la Croix, Les Forces Naturelles Inconnues et le Miracle,” L’Evangile dans la Vie, April 1925, 7, gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k324971r.

24 . Aristotle, On the Parts of Animals, trans. W. Ogle (London: Kegan, Paul, Trench & Co., 1882), 3.5:668b, ia801609.us.archive.org/21/items/aristotleon
parts00arisrich/aristotleonparts00arisrich.pdf. Aristotle, History of Animals, trans. Richard Cresswell (London: George Bells & Sons, 1883), 3.XIV.3, archive
.org/details/aristotleshistor00arisiala/page/n16/mode/1up.

25 . William D. Edwards, Wesley J. Gabel, and Floyd E. Hosmer, “On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ,” JAMA 255, no. 11 (21 March 1986): 1455–63, research
gate.net/publication/19648788_On_the_Physical_Death_of_Jesus_Christ
/link/0fcfd50d47c85123a8000000/download.

26 . Thayer, A Greek English Lexicon, s.v. “ωσει,” 682.

27 . Clint Archer, “Blood, Sweat, and Fear: Did Jesus sweat blood?,” The Cripplegate (15 September 2014), thecripplegate.com/blood-sweat-and-fear
-did-jesus-sweat-blood/.

28 . M. Gary Hadfield, “Neuropathology and the Scriptures,” BYU Studies Quarterly 33, no. 2 (1993): 317–18. scholarsarchive.byu.edu/byusq/vol33/iss2/6.

29 . Duffin, “Sweating blood,” E1315–17.

30 . Bruce R. McConkie, “The Purifying Power of Gethsemane,” Ensign, May 1985, 9, churchofjesuschrist.org/study/ensign/1985/05/the-purifying-power
-of-gethsemane?lang=eng#p27.

31 . Russell M. Nelson, “The Future of the Church: Preparing the World for the Savior’s Second Coming,” Ensign April 2020, churchofjesuschrist.org/study
/ensign/2020/04/the-future-of-the-church-preparing-the-world-for-the
-saviors-second-coming.

32 . Kyle D. Ketchesin, Gwen S. Stinnett, Audrey F. Seasholtz. “Corticotropin-releasing hormone-binding protein and stress: from invertebrates to humans,” Stress 20, no. 5 (September 2017): 449–64, ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles
/PMC7885796/.

33 . Brianna Chu et al., “Physiology, Stress Reaction,” StatPearls (12 September 2022), ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK541120/.

34 . Andrew C. Skinner, “Who Was the Angel Sent to Comfort Jesus in Gethsemane?,” Latter-day Saint Life, 13 June 2019, ldsliving.com/who-was-the-angel-sent
-to-comfort-jesus-in-gethsemane/s/91021.

35 . McConkie, “The Purifying Power,” 9.

36 . Jeffry R. Holland, “The Hands of the Fathers,” Ensign, May 1999, 14, churchof
jesuschrist.org/study/ensign/1999/05/the-hands-of-the-fathers.

37 . A blessing of healing or of comfort may be administered by one who has priesthood authority to do so. Christ performed this ordinance: “All they that had any sick with divers diseases brought them unto him; and he laid his hands on every one of them, and healed them” (Luke 4:40). Later, others who had received the same priesthood authority performed the same ordinance: “Is any sick among you? let him call for the elders of the church; and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord” (James 5:14).

38 . McConkie, “The Purifying Power,” 9–11.

39 . Marion G. Romney, “The Resurrection of Jesus,” Ensign, May 1982, 6, churchofjesuschrist.org/study/general-conference/1982/04/the-resurrection
-of-jesus.

40 . Ezra Taft Benson, “Five Marks of the Divinity of Jesus Christ,” Ensign, December 2001, churchofjesuschrist.org/study/ensign/2001/12/five-marks
-of-the-divinity-of-jesus-christ.

41 . McConkie, “The Purifying Power,” 9.

42 . Chu, “Physiology.”

43 . Salman Bhai, “Neuromuscular Notes: Diagnosing Metabolic Myopathies,” Practical Neurology, September 2021, 57, practicalneurology.com/articles
/2021-sept/neuromuscular-notes-diagnosing-metabolic-myopathies.

44 . The Shroud of Turin is a large, long linen cloth, purported to have been the burial shroud of the Savior. Upon its surface, the outline of a seemingly crucified figure is imprinted, apparently by supernatural methods. The veracity of the Shroud is highly suspect, partly because its existence can be reliably dated to no earlier than 1353.

45 . Frederick T. Zugibe, The Crucifixion of Jesus: A Forensic Enquiry (New York: M Evans and Company, 2005), 190–91, archive.org/details/crucifixion
ofjes0000zugi/page/190/mode/2up?q=support. Zugibe summarizes the numerous estimates of Christ’s height that are each based on the Shroud. He concludes that the average of all estimates is 72 inches. He also concedes that the average based on anthropological studies is 62–64 inches, but he has no suggestion for resolving this discrepancy other than the supposition that Lord must have been unusually tall.

46 . Joan E. Taylor, What Did Jesus Look Like (London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2018), 167.

47 . Taylor, What Did Jesus Look Like, 168.

48 . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “About Adult BMI,” 3 June 2022, cdc.gov/healthyweight/assessing/bmi/adult_bmi/index.html#Interpreted
Adults.

49 . Department Of Health Services, Division of Public Health, “Calories Burned per Hour,” September 2005, dhs.wisconsin.gov/publications/p4/p40109.pdf.

50 . Suzanne Girard Eberle, “The Body’s Fuel Sources,” Human Kinetics, 2024, us.humankinetics.com/blogs/excerpt/the-bodys-fuel-sources. See textbook reference.

51 . “Hormonal Regulation of Energy Metabolism” in Berne and Levy Physiology, 8th ed., ed. Bruce M. Koeppen, Bruce A. Stanton (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2023), doctorlib.info/physiology/physiology/38.html.

52 . Majdi Hamadeh, et al., “Clinical Presentation and Management of Severe Acute Renal Failure in McArdle Disease,” Clinical Medicine and Research 19, no. 2 (June 2021): 90–93, ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8231694/.

53 . “Forced March,” Holocaust Centre North (website), hcn.org.uk/glossary
/forced-march/.

54 . Plutarch, Moralia, trans. Frank Cole Babbitt (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1936), IV:503–05, archive.org/details/plutarchs-moralia-vol.-4-loeb
-305.

55 . Oliver Waite et al., “Sudden cardiac death in marathons: a systematic review,” The Physician and Sportsmedicine 44, no. 1 (2016): 79–84, doi.org/10
.1080/00913847.2016.1135036.

56 . No list is more current, complete, or well referenced as that maintained by Wikipedia, s.v. “List of marathon fatalities,” last updated 24 August 2024, 18:30, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_marathon_fatalities.

57 . Jeff Barton, “Is Ultrarunning Becoming More Dangerous?,” Runner’s Life, 6 September 2021, medium.com/runners-life/is-ultrarunning-becoming-more
-dangerous-bd4838c02e2b.

58 . Cristian Palmiere et al., “A case of suicide by self-injection of adrenaline,” Forensic Science, Medicine and Pathology, 2 August 2015, 11:421–26, link
.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12024-015-9700-x.

59 . John P. Cunha, “Adrenalin,” RxList, 12 April 2023, rxlist.com/adrenalin-drug
.htm#overdosage. “Epinephrine Injection,” Medline Plus, National Library of Medicine, 15 May 2023, medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a603002.html.

60 . “Epinephrine,” DRUGBANK Online, 13 June 2005, go.drugbank.com/drugs
/DB00668#.

61 . Phillip Bishop and Brian Church, “An Alternative Mechanism For Death by Crucifixion,” The Linacre Quarterly 73, no. 3 (August 2006): 285, epublica
tions.marquette.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3733&context=lnq.

62 . Claire Sissons, “What happens when you get an adrenaline rush?,” Medical News Today, 21 July 2023, medicalnewstoday.com/articles/322490.

63 . Gerald N. Lund, “What the Atoning Sacrifice Meant for Jesus,” in My Redeemer Lives!, ed. Richard Neitzel Holzapfel and Kent P. Jackson (Provo: BYU Religious Studies Center; Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2011), 36, rsc.byu
.edu/sites/default/files/pub_content/pdf/02%20Lund.pdf.

64 . Edwards, Gabel, and Hosmer, “On the Physical Death,” 1456–57.

65 . William R. Telford, review of Colin J. Humphreys, The Mystery of the Last Supper: Reconstructing the Final Days of Jesus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 194, zenodo.org/record/4081107/files/article.pdf.

66 . Jeffrey R. Chadwick, “Dating the Death of Jesus Christ,” BYU Studies Quarterly 54, no. 4, (2015): 168, byustudies.byu.edu/article/dating-the-death
-of-jesus-christ/. The Essenes were a separatist group of Jews who lived at Qumran and gave us the Dead Sea Scrolls.

67 . Chadwick, “Dating the Death,” 173.

68 . AISH, “The Number 40,” Ask the Rabbi, aish.com/the-number-40/. See also Alonzo Gaskill, The Lost Language of Symbolism (Deseret Book: Salt Lake City, 2003), 137–8.

69 . AISH, “The Number 40.”

70 . Wade Menezes, “The Significance of ‘40’ in Sacred Scripture,” 2019, fathers
ofmercy.com/the-significance-of-40-in-scripture.

71 . Taylor Halverson, “The Symbolism of 40 in Scripture,” 25 April 2020, taylor
halverson.com/2020/04/25/the-symbolism-of-40-in-scripture-mosiah-7-10/.

72 . Theodor Mommsen, Römisches Strafrecht (Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, 1899), 938, babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044046865572&seq=966.

73 . Andrea Nicolotti, “What Do We Know About Scourging Jesus?,” in The Ancient Near East Today (Alexandria, VA: American Society of Overseas Research, 2023).

74 . Gerald Sigal, “Was Jesus Actually Scourged Before Pilate?,” Jews for Judaism (2013), jewsforjudaism.org/knowledge/articles/isaiah-53-jesus-not
-suffering-servant-part-10/.

75 . Mommsen, Römisches, 938. Andrea Nicolotti, “The Scourge of Jesus and the Roman Scourge, Historical and Archaeological Evidence,” Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus, 20 August 2017, 1, vdoc.pub/documents
/journal-for-the-study-of-the-historical-jesus-410ve3j33bt0.

76 . Saint Bridget, “The Prophecies and Revelations of Saint Bridget (Birgitta) of Sweden,” Book 4, Chapter 70, saintsbooks.net/books/St.%20Bridget%20(Birgitta)%20of%20Sweden%20-%20Prophecies%20and%20Revelations
.pdf.

77 . Nicolotti, “The Scourge,” 6–7.

78 . Mainstream Apologetics, “Scourging Details Unknown Before Fourteenth Century,” mainstreamapologetics.org/evidences/HIS-EV53.html.

79 . Nicolotti, “The Scourge,” 4.

80 . Nicolotti, “The Scourge,” 1.

81 . McConkie, “The Purifying Power,” 9.

82 . Renner Ministries, “Scourged!,” renner.org/article/scourged/.

83 . “Roman Scourge and Flagellum,” BibleVerseStudy.com (2023), bible
versestudy.com/acts/acts22-roman-scourge.htm.

84 . Eusebius of Caesarea, Church History, trans. Arthur Cushman McGiffert, Book IV, Chapter 15:4, ewtn.com/catholicism/library/church-history-books-ivvi
-11517.

85 . Flavius Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, Book VI, Chapter 5:3, gutenberg
.org/files/2850/2850-h/2850-h.htm#link62HCH0003.

86 . Edwards, Gabel, and Hosmer, “On the Physical Death,” 1457.

87 . Carl Schneider, “μαστιγóω,” Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1967) 4:515–19, archive.org/details
/theologicaldicti0004kitt/page/514/mode/2up?q=romans.

88 . Raymond E. Brown, The Gospel According to John (New York: Doubleday, 1970), 885–89, archive.org/details/gospelaccordingt0002unse/page/884
/mode/2up.

89 . Stephen M. Tenney, “On death by crucifixion,” American Heart Journal 68, no. 2 (August 1964): 286–87.

90 . Cleveland Clinic, “Hypovolemia,” Cleveland Clinic, 10 May 2022, my.cleveland
clinic.org/health/diseases/22963-hypovolemia.

91 . Sharven Taghavi, Aussama k. Nassar, Reza Askari, “Hypovolemic Shock,” StatPearls, 5 June 2023, ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513297/.

92 . Taylor, “What Did Jesus Look Like,” 168.

93 . John R. Cameron, James G. Skofronick, Roderick M. Grant, Physics of the Body (Madison, WI: Medical Physics, 1999), 182, archive.org/details
/physicsofbody0000came/page/182/mode/2up.

94 . Rachel Nall, “How Much Blood Is in Your Body and How Much You Can Lose,” Healthline, 18 July 2017, healthline.com/health/how-much-blood-in
-human-body#howmuch-blood-can-you-lose.

95 . For comparison, the Modified Parkland Formula for burn resuscitation of an adult specifies administering an intravenous infusion of 4 mL of resuscitating fluid multiplied by the percentage of body surface burned multiplied by kilograms of body weight. Assuming Christ had sustained a 20% burn of his total body surface area (approximately the entire surface of the back) and weighed 55 kg (120 lb), resuscitation would have consisted of 4 mL x 20% x 55 kg or 4,400 mL (9.25 pints) of fluid over the following 24 hours. By the time Christ died, about twelve hours later, for his damaged skin, he should have received half of that amount, nearly five pints. This is irrespective of any blood loss.

96 . Miruna Secuianu, “Euphorbia Milii Guide: How to Grow & Care for ‘Crown of Thorns’ Plant,” GardenBeast, 26 July 2023, gardenbeast.com/euphorbia
-milii-guide.

97 . Thomas Ombrello, “Crown of Thorns,” Plant of the Week (website), 2004, web.archive.org/web/20090917022506/http://faculty.ucc.edu/biology
-ombrello/pow/crown_of_thorns.htm.

98 . Matthew George Easton, Illustrated Bible Dictionary and Treasury of Biblical History, Biography, Geography, Doctrine, and Literature: With Numerous Illustrations and Important Chronological Tables and Maps (London: T. Nelson and Sons, 1893), 665, archive.org/details/illustratedbible00east/page/664
/mode/2up.

99 . “Ziziphus spina-christi, Jujube, Christ’s thorn, Atad,” Flowers in Israel, flowersinisrael.com/Ziziphusspina-christi_page.htm.

100 . “Crown of Thorns,” Encyclopedia of The Bible, biblegateway.com/resources
/encyclopedia-of-the-bible/Crown-Thorns.

101 . “Crown of Thorns,” Plants Toxic to Animals, 11 May 2022, guides.library.illinois
.edu/c.php?g=745575&p=6243278#s-lg-box-19837015.

102 . Secuianu, “Euphorbia Milii.”

103 . Will Hunt, “The Scalp,” TeachMe Anatomy, 22 November 2020, teachme
anatomy.info/head/areas/scalp/.

104 . M. J. Lemos and D. E. Clark, “Scalp lacerations resulting in hemorrhagic shock: case reports and recommended management,” Journal of Emergency Medicine 6, no. 5 (September–October 1988): 377–79, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih
.gov/3225445/.

105 . Edwin Ocran, “Periosteum,” Kenhub, 30 October 2023, kenhub.com/en
/library/anatomy/periosteum.

106 . Hiroyuki Hori et al., “The Thickness, of Human Scalp: Normal and Bald,” Journal of Investigative Dermatology 58, no. 6 (1972): 396–99, jidonline.org
/article/S0022-202X(15)48154-0/pdf.

107 . Joan E. Taylor, “What Did Jesus Look Like?,” The Ancient Near East Today 7, no. 12 (December 2019), asor.org/anetoday/2019/12/Jesus-Look-Like.

108 . Tyrian, imperial, or royal purple is a reddish-purple dye extracted from the Murex brandaris sea snail, which is found in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. The dye was incredibly laborious and costly to produce. Around “10,000 shellfish would produce 1 gram of dye stuff, and that would only dye the hem of a garment in a deep colour.” The dye was said to be worth three times its weight in gold. Mark Cartwright, “Tyrian Purple,” Ancient History Encyclopedia, 21 July 2016, ancient.eu/Tyrian_Purple/.

109 . Kassia St. Clair, The Secret Lives of Colour (London: John Murray, 2016), 163–64.

110 . Kelly Grovier, “Tyrian Purple: The disgusting origins of the colour purple,” BBC 1, August 2018, bbc.com/culture/article/20180801-tyrian-purple
-the-regal-colour-taken-from-mollusc-mucus.

111 . Kristin H. South, Anita Cramer Wells, “Clothing and Textiles in the New Testament,” in New Testament History, Culture, and Society: A Background to the Texts of the New Testament, ed. Lincoln H. Blumell (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University; Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2019), 645, rsc.byu.edu/new-testament-history-culture-society/clothing-textiles
-new-testament.

112 . Jesse Mark Dawson, “Super Hydrophilic Wool based Biomaterial for Wound Dressing Application” (Thesis, Master of Science, University of Otago, 2021), hdl.handle.net/10523/10945.

113 . Bruno M. Pereira, José B. Bortoto, Gustavo P. Fraga, “Topical hemostatic agents in surgery: review and prospects.” Rev Col Bras Cir 45, no. 45 (18 October 2018): 5, scielo.br/j/rcbc/a/bbtkdfQvLDxFKhHcM48YCbk/?format
=pdf&lang=en.

114 . R. W. Farndale et al., “The role of collagen in thrombosis and hemostasis,” Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 25 March 2004, onlinelibrary.wiley
.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1538-7836.2004.00665.x.

115 . Ken Knapp, “How to Pick the Most Breathable Fabrics,” REI COOP Expert Advice, rei.com/learn/expert-advice/how-to-pick-the-most-breathable-fabrics
.html.

116 . James Strong, s.v. “4716,” A Concise Dictionary of the Words in the Greek Testament with Their Renderings in the Authorized English Version” (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1890), 66, archive.org/details/StrongsGreekAnd
HebrewDictionaries1890/StrongGreekDictionary/page/n62/mode/1up.

117 . Justus Lipsius, De Cruce (Ex officina Plantiniana, apud viduam & Joannem Moretum, 1594), Book 1, Chapter V:16–21, archive.org/details/bub_gb
_gyEfy09YIRwC/page/n33/mode/2up.

118 . Lipsius, De Cruce, Book 3, Chapter VII:26–30, archive.org/details/bub_gb
_gyEfy09YIRwC/page/n39/mode/2up.

119 . Lipsius, De Cruce, Book 3, Chapter VIII:31–35, archive.org/details/bub_gb
_gyEfy09YIRwC/page/n47/mode/2up.

120 . Lipsius, De Cruce, Book 3, Chapter IX:35–42, archive.org/details/bub_gb
_gyEfy09YIRwC/page/n51/mode/2up.

121 . Ethelbert W. Bullinger, s.v. “Cross,” A Critical Lexicon and Concordance to the English and Greek New Testament (London: Longmans, Green, 1895), 195, archive.org/details/criticallexiconc00bull/page/194/mode/2up.

122 . Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, VII, 69:1–2, (60 BC to later than 7 BC), penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dionysius_of
_Halicarnassus/7C*.html.

123 . Hermann Mödder, “Die todesursache bei der Kreuzigung.” Stimmen der Zeit,” 144, no. 1 (1948): 50–59. Quoted by Frans Wijffels, “Death on the Cross: Did the Turin Shroud Once Envelop a Crucified Body?,” British Society for the Turin Shroud Newsletter, no. 52 (November 2000), shroud.com/pdfs
/n52part3.pdf.

124 . Frederick T. Zugibe, The Crucifixion of Jesus: A Forensic Enquiry (New York: M Evans, 2005), 86–89, archive.org/details/crucifixionofjes0000zugi
/page/86/mode/2up?q=support.

125 . Antoine Legrand, “Du Gibet du Golgotha à ceux de Dachau,” Médecine et Laboratoire, 19 December 1952, 39–93. Quoted in Frans Wijffels, “Death on the Cross.”

126 . “Archaeology of the Cross and Crucifix, III The Crucifixion of Jesus Christ,” Catholic Encyclopedia, catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=3537. This lengthy article contains a wealth of ancient sources regarding all aspects of the cross and crucifixion in antiquity.

127 . Benjamin Jowett, “Crux,” in A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, ed. William Smith (London: John Murray, 1875), 370–71, archive.org/details
/adictionarygree05smitgoog/page/n388/mode/2up?q=crux.

128 . John Granger Cook, “Crucifixion as Spectacle in Roman Campania,” Novum Testamentum 54, no. 1 (2012): 60, 92–98, jstor.org/stable/23253630.

129 . James Grout, “Alexamenos Graffito,” Alexamenos and pagan perceptions of Christians, Encyclopaedia Romana, 2023, penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout
/encyclopaedia_romana/gladiators/graffito.html.

130 . Tertullian, Adversus Marcionem, trans. Earnest Evans (1972), liber III:22, 241, tertullian.org/articles/evans_marc/evans_marc_08book3_eng.htm.

131 . Clement of Alexandria, The Stromata: The Book of the Patchwork, trans. Peter Thompson, Book 6, 11.1 Chapter 195, Div. 6088, academia.edu/63145
482/the_Stromata_of_Clement_of_Alexandria_books_6_7_8.

132 . Lucian, “A Trial in the Court of Vowels,” The Works of Lucian of Samosata, trans. H.W. Fowler and F.G. Fowler (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1905), 30.

133 . Bruce W. Longenecker, The Cross before Constantine: The Early Life of a Christian Symbol (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2015), 73–120, jstor.org/stable/j
.ctt13wwwf3.8.

134 . John Granger Cook, “Crucifixion in the Ancient Mediterranean World,” (paper, LaGrange College, June 2014), 4, bibleinterp.arizona.edu/sites/bible
interp.arizona.edu/files/docs/CrucifixionAncientMed.pdf.

135 . Lipsius, De Cruce, Book 3, Chapter XIII:157, archive.org/details/bub_gb
_gyEfy09YIRwC/page/n181/mode/2up?q=quercu.

136 . David Cloud, “Trees in Ancient Israel,” in Jews in Fighter Jets: Israel Past, Present, and Future (Port Huron, MI: Way of Life Literature, 2018), wayoflife
.org/reports/trees_in_ancient_israel.php.

137 . “Wood Species—Densities,” The Engineering Toolbox, engineeringtoolbox
.com/wood-density-d_40.html.

138 . J. Charles Wall, Relics from the Crucifixion (Manchester, NH: Sophia Institute Press, 2015) 23–24, google.com/books/edition/Relics_from_the_Crucifixion
/sxJ6CwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq.

139 . Vassilios Tzaferis, “Jewish Tombs at and near Giv’at ha-Mivtar, Jerusalem,” Israel Exploration Journal 20, no. 1/2 (1970): 18–32, jstor.org/stable/27925208.

140 . “Calories Burned per Hour,” Division of Public Health, Department of Health Services, State of Wisconsin, dhs.wisconsin.gov/publications/p4/p40109.pdf.

141 . Alejandro Lucia et al., “Clinical practice guidelines for glycogen storage disease V & VII (McArdle disease and Tarui disease) from an international study group,” Neuromuscular Disorders 31, no. 12 (December 2021): 1296–310.

142 . The formula for calculating the tension on each of the nails that pierce the hands is: Tension = Weight / 2 (cos θ) where θ is the angle of the arms from the vertical. Barbet estimated angle θ to be 65°, so his calculation was: 175 lb / 2 x 0.423 = 207 lb of tension on each hand.

143 . Pierre Barbet, A Doctor at Calvary: The Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ as Described by a Surgeon, trans. The Earl of Wicklow (Garden City, NY: Image Books, 1963), Chapter 5, where-you-are.net/ebooks/a-doctor-at-calvary
-pierre-barbet.pdf.

144 . Zugibe, The Crucifixion of Jesus, 84.

145 . Taylor, “What Did Jesus Look Like,” 168.

146 . Mike Fillon, “The Real Face of Jesus,” Popular Mechanics, December 2002, zoe-life.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/popular-mechanics-dec-2002
-the-real-face-of-jesus.pdf.

147 . Joseph M. Jordan, “How much did Jesus weigh (How heavy was Jesus)?,” Christian Faith Guide, christianfaithguide.com/how-much-did-jesus-weigh/.

148 . With a decreased estimated weight, the calculation becomes: Tension = 120 lb (55 kg) / 2 x cos 65° = 60 / 0.423 = 142 lb (64.5 kg).

149 . Cahleen Shrier, “The Science of the Crucifixion,” APULife, March 2002, apu.edu/articles/the-science-of-the-crucifixion/.

150 . Waldemar Karwawski, William S. Marras, eds., The Occupational Ergonomics Handbook (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1999), 148, google.com/books
/edition/The_Occupational_Ergonomics_Handbook/B1EUF7mpJ4QC?hl
=en&gbpv=1. These data are an approximation because they reflect anthropometric measurements of adult East German men whose proportions may vary from those of adult first century Jewish men. Another estimate is the height times 3/8; this equals a very similar 23.6 inches. I also subtract 120 millimeters from the shoulder-to-tip-of-middle-finger distance to account for the distance from the mid-palm to the tip of the middle finger. Although approximations, these calculations are almost certainly more accurate than are many other assumptions made by these investigators.

151 . Given an initial arm length of 23 inches, an additional 6 inches of length would cause angle θ to become arcsin 23/29 or arcsin 0.793, which is 52.5°. Tension = Weight / 2 (cos θ), so the calculation becomes: 120 lb / 2 x cos (52.5°) = 98.6 lb of tension on each hand. An additional three inches of length would cause angle θ to become arcsin 23/32 or arcsin 0.72, which is 46°. The resulting tension would be 120 /2 x cos (46°) or 86.4 lb.

152 . Stephen Lewis, “Some Notes on Crucifixion,” Organ (1995), 8:8–11, web
.archive.org/web/20110718171841/http://chesterrep.openrepository.com/cdr
/bitstream/10034/40813/1/Some%20Notes%20on%20Crucifixion.pdf.

153 . Barbet, A Doctor at Calvary, Chapter 5.

154 . Javier E. Sánchez Saba, et al., “Nonsurgical treatment of deep transverse metacarpal ligament injuries.” MOJ Orthop Rheumatol 14, no. 5 (2022): 163–64, medcraveonline.com/MOJOR/MOJOR-14-00599.pdf.

155 . Sarah L. Manske, Caeley R. Lorincz, Ron F. Zernicke, “Bone health: part 2, physical activity,” Sports Health 1, no. 4 (July 2009): 341–46, researchgate.net
/publication/231215574_Bone_Health_Part_2_Physical_Activity.

156 . Shrier, “The Science of the Crucifixion.”

157 . Andrew Dilley, Bruce Lynn, See Jye Pang, “Pressure and stretch mechanosensitivity of peripheral nerve fibres following local inflammation of the nerve trunk,” Pain 117, no. 3 (October 2005): 462–72, ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles
/PMC1402335/.

158 . Aarti Sareen, ed., “Brachial Plexus Injury,” Physiopedia, physio-pedia.com
/Brachial_Plexus_Injury.

159 . Justin Merryman, Matthew Varacallo, “Klumpke Palsy,” StatPearls, 4 August 2023, ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK531500/.

160 . Sareen, “Brachial Plexus Injury.”

161 . Linda J. Vorvick, “Vital signs,” Medline Plus, National Library of Medicine, 2 February 2023, medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002341.htm.

162 . Kamashi Pandirajan, “Mechanics of Breathing,” Teach Me Physiology, 16 July 2023, teachmephysiology.com/respiratory-system/ventilation/mechanics-of
-breathing.

163 . Pandirajan, “Mechanics.”

164 . Zugibe, The Crucifixion of Jesus, 85–87.

165 . Nicu Haas, “Anthropological Observations on the Skeletal Remains from Giv’at ha-Mivtar,” Israel Exploration Journal 20, no. 1/2 (1970): 38–59.

166 . David Ingham, Corinne Duhig, “Crucifixion in the Fens: life and death in Roman Fenstanton,” British Archeology (January–February 2022): 18–29, archaeologyuk.org/resource/free-access-to-crucifixion-in-the-fens-life-and
-death-in-roman-fenstanton.html.

167 . Emanuela Gualdi-Russo et al., “A multi- disciplinary study of calcaneal trauma in Roman Italy: a possible case of crucifixion?,” Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2018): 1–9, researchgate.net/publication/324496883_A
_multidisciplinary_study_of_calcaneal_trauma_in_Roman_Italy_a_possible
_case_of_crucifixion.

168 . Cook, “Crucifixion as Spectacle”; Grout, “Alexamenos Graffito.”

169 . Anderson Martelli, Fabiana Palermo Martelli, “The suffering of ‘MAN JESUS CHRIST’,” South Florida Journal of Development, Miami 1, no. 3 (July–September 2020): 68, ojs.southfloridapublishing.com/ojs/index.php/jdev/article/view/16/55.

170 . Tad Callister, The Infinite Atonement (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2000), 146.

171 . Talmage, Jesus the Christ, 661.

172 . Bruce R. McConkie, “The Seven Christs,” Ensign, October 1982, 33, churchofjesuschrist.org/study/general-conference/1982/10/the-seven
-christs.

173 . Jeffrey R. Holland, “None Were with Him.” Ensign, May 2009, 88, churchof
jesuschrist.org/study/general-conference/2009/04/none-were-with-him.

174 . Gary R. Habermas, Jonathan Kopel, Benjamin C. F. Shaw, “Medical views on the death by crucifixion of Jesus Christ,” Proceedings 34, no. 6 (2021): 748–52, ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8545147/pdf/UBMC_34_1951096.pdf.

175 . William Stroud, A Treatise on the Physical Cause of the Death of Christ (London: Hamilton & Adams, 1847), 156, archive.org/details/treatiseonphysic
00stro/page/156/mode/2up.

176 . Talmage, Jesus the Christ, 669.

177 . Lund, “What the Atoning Sacrifice Meant,” 36.

178 . Risdon Bennett, The Diseases of the Bible (London: The Religious Tract Society, 1887), 132, books.google.com.gt/books?id=9F0XAQAAMAAJ&pg
=RA1-PA117&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=2#v=onepage&q&f=false.

179 . Stuart Bergsma, “Did Jesus die of a broken heart?,” Calvin Forum 14 (1948): 163–67, calvin.edu/library/database/crcpi/fulltext/calvinforum/CF1948-03.pdf.

180 . David A. Ball, “The crucifixion and death of a man called Jesus,” J Miss State Med Assoc 30, no. 3 (March 1989): 77–83, archive.org/stream/journalofmississ
30unse/journalofmississ30unse_djvu.txt.

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