Anachronisms: Accidental Evidence in Book of Mormon Criticisms — Chapter 9: Concluding Observations
Author: Matthew Roper
Date: 2025-06-27T02:29:55+00:00
Keywords: Book of Mormon;anachronism;Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints;LDS;Mormonism
Description: We are pleased to present Chapter 9 and a Selected Bibliography from a book entitled Anachronisms: Accidental Evidence in Book of Mormon Criticisms. It is presented in serialized form in this volume of Interpreter: A Journal of Latter-day Saint Faith and Scholarship.
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Anachronisms: Accidental Evidence in Book of Mormon Criticisms

Matthew Roper

[Editor’s Note: We are pleased to present chapter 9 from a book entitled Anachronisms: Accidental Evidence in Book of Mormon Criticisms. It is presented in serialized form in this volume of Interpreter: A Journal of Latter-day Saint Faith and Scholarship. This is immediately followed by a selected bibliography for the book.]

Chapter 9:
Concluding Observations

During the fourteen years of the first phase (1830–1844), 102 items in the Book of Mormon were alleged to be anachronistic. By the end of that period, seven of these had been confirmed as accurate textual features, two had been partially confirmed, while ninety-three remained unconfirmed (see figures 64 and 65). By the end of the second phase (1845–1965), a period of 120 years, the total number of claimed anachronisms had increased to 168, of which thirty-six were confirmed as accurate textual features, ten were partially confirmed, and 122 were unconfirmed (see figures 66 and 67. During the last fifty-eight years, which constitute the third phase (1966–2024), the total number of claimed anachronisms increased to 226, of which 174 have been confirmed as accurate cultural, historical, or linguistic features, thirty-one partially confirmed, and twenty-one unconfirmed (see figures 68 and 69).

Figure 64. Total Book of Mormon anachronism claims (1830–1844).

Figure 65. Total Book of Mormon anachronism claims (1830–1844, continued).

Figure 66. Total Book of Mormon anachronism claims (1845–1965).

Figure 67. Total Book of Mormon anachronism claims (1845–1965, continued).

Figure 68. Total Book of Mormon anachronism claims (1966–2024).

Figure 69. Total Book of Mormon anachronism claims (1966–2024, continued).

Notably, while the number of alleged anachronisms increased during each of the three periods, so did the number of confirmations. Not only did they increase, but they increased exponentially. Whereas 90.2% of the items remained unconfirmed in 1844, today that figure has dropped to a meager 9.29%. Thus, the key finding of this study is that, over time, allegedly problematic features of the Book of Mormon text have strongly trended towards confirmation or partial confirmation, especially in the past fifty-eight years.

The results of this survey elicit several brief observations. First, I would stress that this data only represents an evaluation of the status of anachronisms as framed by critics and does not consider other kinds of evidence that might conceivably be marshaled for or against the claims of the Book of Mormon. It provides a useful, albeit limited, picture of evidence. It also should be understood that there has been little attempt to address how anachronisms may measure up against specific interpretive models of the geography of the text, something far beyond the scope of this study. Future researchers may perhaps wish to explore more specific applications of this approach as they pursue potential future correlations of the text with ancient civilizations. My purpose in this survey is less ambitious—that is, to highlight how the currents of arguments about anachronisms have shifted since 1830.

Second, it should be abundantly clear that perceived anachronisms are susceptible to refutation over time as new information is made available through additional research, interpretation, and discoveries. Kenneth Kitchen, in speaking of archaeology and the Bible, warns against the tendency of some readers to say,

“we did not find it, so it never existed!” instead of the more proper formulation: “evidence is currently lacking; we may have missed it or it may have left no trace; particularly when 5 percent of a mound is dug, leaving 95 percent or more untouched, unknown, and so, not in evidence.”1

Similar caution should be taken when discussing the Book of Mormon.

Third, items that may seem problematic in the Book of Mormon can often generate good questions that lead to fresh research, new discoveries, and textual insights. As Hugh Nibley noted,

Long experience has shown that the Latter-day Saints only become aware of the nature and genius of their modern scriptures when relentless and obstreperous criticism from the outside forces them to take a closer look at what they have, with the usual result of putting those scriptures in a much stronger position than they were before.2

What at first appear to be “negative items,” writes archaeologist John E. Clark, “may prove to be positive ones in hiding. ‘Missing’ evidence focuses further research, but it lacks compelling logical force in arguments because it represents the absence of information rather than secure evidence.”3 Furthermore, certain kinds of questions require specific types of tools and information to answer. Anyone can generate questions or express doubt or disbelief. Getting reliable answers, on the other hand, often requires that we do rigorous work and research to investigate the truth.

Fourth, when believers in the Book of Mormon’s authenticity examine its many so-called anachronisms with a view of their trajectory over time, it can encourage them to approach challenging questions that remain with greater optimism and patience. As Clark puts it,
deficiencies of negative evidence persist, for the most part, but they should not distract attention from the scores of other unusual items mentioned in the book which have been confirmed through archaeology—nor from the possibility that missing evidence may someday be found.4

The evidence presented in this book is consistent with his conclusion that while many questions remain “today, current science is more supportive because many claims made in the book have been substantiated,” and “as seen by science, the Book of Mormon is stronger today than it was in 1830, 1844, 1950, or even 2000, so I expect it will continue to become stronger in the future.”5

Finally, the confirmation of many items that were once considered problematic can encourage current and future readers of the Book of Mormon to take its historical claims seriously. If the text truly is authentic and ancient—which I certainly believe to be so—then the deepest and most complete understanding of its content will only come as readers diligently assess the book in light of its ancient historical contexts in both the Old and New Worlds. If the current trend holds, many more exciting and faith-promoting discoveries may be right around the corner. Only time will tell, but in this particular area, time seems to favor the Book of Mormon.

Matthew Roper is a researcher and writer for Scripture Central. He received a Bachelors degree and an MA in Sociology from Brigham Young University. He compiled and was responsible for the Harold B. Lee Library’s electronic collection Nineteenth Century Publications about the Book of Mormon 1829–1844. He has published in Literary and Linguistic Computing, BYU Studies Quarterly, Mormon Studies Review, Interpreter, and the Journal of Book of Mormon Studies.

Notes

1. 1. Kenneth A. Kitchen, “New directions in Biblical Archaeology: Historical and Biblical Aspects,” in Biblical Archaeology Today, 1990: Proceedings of the Second International Congress on Biblical Archaeology, Jerusalem, June–July 1990, ed. Avraham Biran, Joseph Aviram, and Alan Paris-Shadur (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1993), 48.

2. 2. Hugh Nibley, An Approach to the Book of Abraham (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book; Provo, UT: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 2010), 40.

3. 3. John E. Clark, “Archaeological Trends and Book of Mormon Origins,” BYU Studies 44, no. 4 (2005): 94, scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi
?article=3732&context=byusq.

4. 4. Clark, “Archaeological Trends,” 95.

5. 5. Clark, “Archaeological Trends,” 95.

Selected Bibliography

This bibliography provides a selection of some of the sources—general and relevant to each chapter—that I have found useful in the compilation of this work. It is not exhaustive, but merely intended to provide the interested reader a convenient list of resources should they wish to pursue further study of so-called anachronisms in the Book of Mormon.

I first examine general resources relative to anachronisms, and then provide a section for resources specific to each chapter in the book.

General Resources

Benson, Elizabeth P., ed. The Olmec and Their Neighbors: Essays in Memory of Matthew W. Stirling. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collections, Trustees for Harvard University, 1981.

Bray, Warwick. Everyday Life of the Aztecs. New York: Dorset Press, 1968.

Chavero, Alfredo, ed. Obras historicas de Don Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl, 2 vols. Mexico: Editora Nacional, 1952.

Cobo, Bernabe. Inca Religion and Customs. Translated by Roland Hamilton. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990.

Coe, Michael D., and Rex Koontz. Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs, 7th ed. London: Thames & Hudson, 2013.

Cortes, Hernando. Hernando Cortes Five Letters 1519–1526. Translated by J. Bayard Morris. New York: W. W. Norton, 1991.

Crapo, Richley H., and Bonnie Glass-Coffin, eds. Anónimo Mexicano. Logan: Utah State University Press, 2005.

Cyphers, Ann. Escultura Olmeca de San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan. Mexico City: Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 2004.

D’Altroy, Terence N. The Incas, 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2015.

Duran, Diego. The History of the Indies of New Spain. Translated by Doris Heyden. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994.

Duran, Diego. Book of the Gods and Rites of the Ancient Calendar. Translated by Doris Heyden. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1970.

Diaz, Bernal. The Conquest of New Spain. Translated by J. M. Cohen. London: Penguin Books, 1963.

Diehl, Richard A. The Olmecs: America’s First Civilization. London: Thames & Hudson, 2004.

Foster, Lynn V. Handbook to Life in the Ancient Maya World. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.

Fuentes, Patricia de. The Conquistadors: First-Person Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico. Translated and edited by Patricia de Fuentes. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993.

Gardner, Brant A. Traditions of the Fathers: The Book of Mormon as History. Salt Lake City: Greg Kofford Books, 2015.

Kendall, Ann. Everyday Life of the Incas. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1973.

King, Philip J., and Lawrence E. Stager. Life in Biblical Israel. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2002.

Landa, Diego de. Landa’s Relación de las Cosas de Yucatan. Translated and edited by Alfred M. Tozzer. Cambridge, MA: Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, 1941.

Martin, Simon, and Nikolai Grube. Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens, 2nd ed. London: Thames & Hudson, 2008.

Martínez, Florentino García, and Eibert J. C. Tigchelaar, eds. The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition, 2 vols. Grand Rapids, MI: 1998.

Mazar, Amihai. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible: 10,000–586 BC. New York: Doubleday, 1990.

Miller, Mary Ellen. The Art of Mesoamerica: From Olmec to Aztec, 5th ed. London: Thames & Hudson, 2012.

Miller, Mary Ellen, and Megan E. O’Neil. Maya Art and Architecture, 2nd ed. London: Thames & Hudson, 2014.

Miller, Mary Ellen, and Karl Taube. The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican Religion. London: Thames & Hudson, 1993.

Orellana, Sandra. The Tzutujil Mayas: Continuity and Change, 1250–1630. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1984.

Pritchard, James B., ed. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 3rd ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969.

Saenz de Santa Maria, Carmelo, ed. Obras historicas de Don Francisco Antonio de Fuentes y Guzman, 3 vols. Madrid: Real Academia Espanola, 1972.

Sahagún, Bernardino de. General History of the Things of New Spain: Florentine Codex. Translated by Arthur J. O. Anderson and Charles E. Dibble, 13 parts. Santa Fe: School of American Research; Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1961.

Sorenson, John L. Ancient American Setting for the Book of Mormon. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1985.

Sorenson, John L. Images of Ancient America: Visualizing Book of Mormon Life. Provo, UT: Research Press, 1998.

Sorenson, John L. Mormon’s Codex: An Ancient American Book. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book; Provo, UT: Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship, 2013.

Soustelle, Jacques. The Olmecs: The Oldest Civilization in Mexico. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1984.

Stephens, John L. Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan, 2 vols. New York: Dover Publications, 1969.

Chapter 1: Animals

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Alberdi, Maria Teresa, Joaquin Arroyo-Cabrales, Alejandro H. Marin-Leyva, and Oscar J. Polaco. “Study of El Cedral Horses and Their Place in the Mexican Quaternary.” Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Geologicas 31, no.2 (2014): 221–37.

Amyot, James, and Thomas North, trans. The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans Compared Together by that Grave, Learned Philosopher and Historiographer Plutarch. New York: Heritage Press, 1941.

Andrews, Anthony P., and Fernando Robles Castellanos. “The Paleo-American and Archaic Periods in Yucatan.” In Pathways to Complexity: A View from the Maya Lowlands, edited by M. Kathryn Brown and George J. Bey III, 23–26. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2018.

Arroyo-Cabrales, Joaquin, Oscar J. Polaco, and Eileen Johnson. “A Preliminary View of the Coexistence of Mammoth and Early Peoples of Mexico.” Quaternary International 142–43 (2006): 79–86.

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Arroyo-Cabrales, Joaquin, Oscar J. Polaco, Eileen Johnson, and A. F. Guzman. “The Distribution of the Genus Mammuthus in Mexico.” DEINSEA 9 (24 May 2003): 27–39.

Arroyo-Cabrales, Joaquin, Oscar J. Polaco, and Felisa J. Aguilar-Arrellano. “Remains of Mammuthus Housed in the Collections of the Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia, Mexico.” DEINSEA 9 (24 May 2003): 17–25.

Arroya-Cabrales, Joaquin, Oscar J. Polaco, Cesar Luarito, Eileen Johnson, Maria Teresa Alberdi, and Ana Lucia Valerio Zamora. “The Proboscideans (Mammalia) from Mesoamérica.” Quaternary International 169–70 (2007): 17–23.

Arroyo-Cabrales, Joaquin, Oscar J. Polaco, Eileen Johnson, Ismael Ferruscquia–Villafranca. “A Perspective on Mammal Biodiversity and Zoogeography in the Late Pleistocene of Mexico.” Quaternary International 212 (210): 187–97.

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Geist, Valerius. Mountain Sheep: A Study in Behavior and Evolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971.

Haile, James, Duane G. Froese, Ross D. E. MacPhee, Richard G. Roberts, Lee J. Arnold, Alberto V. Reyes, Morten Rasmussen, Rasmus Nielsen, Barry W. Brook, Simon Robinson, Martina Demuro, M. Thomas P. Gilbert, Kasper Munch, Jeremy J. Austin, Alan Cooper, Ian Barnes, Per Möller, and Eske Willerslev. “Ancient DNA Reveals Late Survival of Mammoth and Horse in Interior Alaska.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106, no. 52 (29 December 2009): 22352–57.

Hall, E. Raymond, and Keith R. Kelson. The Mammals of North America. New York: Ronald Press, 1959.

Heintzman, Peter D., Grant D Zazula, Ross D. E. MacPhee, Eric Scott, James A. Cahill, Brianna K. McHorse, Joshua D. Kapp, Mathias Stiller, Matthew J. Wooller, Ludovic Orlando, John Southon, Duane G. Froese, and Beth Shapiro. “A New Genus of Horse from Pleistocene North America.” eLife 6 (28 November 2017).

Hellmuth, Nicholas M. “Crocodiles, Caimans and Alligators in Mayan Art and Mythology of Guatemala.” Revue: Guatemala’s English Language Magazine (10 November 2011).

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Jimenez-Hidalgo, Eduardo, Gerardo Carbot-Chanona, Rosalia Guerrero-Arenas, Victor Bravo-Cuevas, Genevieve Holdridge, and Isabel Israde-Alcantara. “Species Diversity and Paleoecology of Late Pleistocene Horses from Southern Mexico.” Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 7 (October 2019): 1–16.

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Wang, Yucheng, Ana Prohaska, Haoran Dong, Adriana Alberti, Inger Greve Alsos, David W. Beilman, Anders A. Bjørk, Jialu Cao, Anna A. Cherezova, Eric Coissac, Bianca De Sanctis, France Denoeud, Christoph Dockter, Richard Durbin, Mary E. Edwards, Neil R. Edwards, Julie Esdale, Grigory B. Fedorov, Antonio Fernandez-Guerra, Duane G. Froese, Galina Gusarova, James Haile, Philip B. Holden, Kristian K. Kjeldsen, Kurt H. Kjær, Thorfinn Sand Korneliussen, Youri Lammers, Nicolaj Krog Larsen, Ruairidh Macleod, Jan Mangerud, Hugh McColl, Marie Kristine Føreid Merkel, Daniel Money, Per Möller, David Nogués-Bravo, Ludovic Orlando, Hannah Lois Owens, Mikkel Winther Pedersen, Fernando Racimo, Carsten Rahbek, Jeffrey T. Rasic, Alexandra Rouillard, Anthony H. Ruter, Birgitte Skadhauge, John Inge Svendsen, Alexei Tikhonov, Lasse Vinner, Patrick Wincker, Yingchun Xing, Yubin Zhang, David J. Meltzer, and Eske Willerslev. “Reply to: When Did Mammoths Go Extinct?” Nature 612 (1 December 2022): E4–E6.

White, Christine D., Mary E. D. Pohl, Henry P. Schwarcz, and Fred J. Longstaffe. “Isotopic Evidence for Maya Patterns of Deer and Dog Use at Preclassic Colha.” Journal of Archaeological Science 28, no. 1 (2001): 89–107.

Wing, Elizabeth S. “Maya Zooarchaeology from a Zooarchaeological Perspective.” In Maya Zooarchaeology: New Directions in Method and Theory, edited by Kitty F. Emery. Los Angeles, CA: University of California, 2004.

Zralka, Jaroslaw, Christophe Helmke, Laura Sotelo, and Wieslaw Koszkul. “The Discovery of a Beehive and the Identification of Apiaries among the Ancient Maya.” Latin American Antiquity 29, no. 3 (2018): 514–31.

Chapter 2: Ancient Warfare

Alcover Firpi, Omar Andres, and Charles Golden. “The Politics of Conflict: War before and beyond the State in Maya Society.” In The Maya World, edited by Scott R. Hutson and Traci Ardren, 477–95. Milton Park, UK: Routledge, 2020.

Aoyama, Kazuo. Elite Craft Producers, Artists, and Warriors at Aguateca: Lithic Analysis. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2009.

Aoyama, Kazuo. “Classic Maya Warfare and Weapons: Spear, Dart, and Arrow Points of Aguateca and Copan.” Ancient Mesoamerica 16 (2005): 291–304.

Bandelier, A. D. F. “On the Art of War and Mode of Warfare of the Ancient Mexicans.” Peabody Museum Annual Reports 2 (1877): 95–161.

Bracken, Justin. “Preclassic Maya Fortification at Muralla de Leon, Peten: Deducing Assets, Military Strategies, and Specific Threats through Analysis of Defensive Systems.” Ancient Mesoamerica 34, no. 1 (2023): 216–40.

Brown, M. Kathryn, and Travis W. Stanton, eds. Ancient Mesoamerican Warfare. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira, 2003.

Cabrera, Rubén. “Conjunto Plaza Oeste.” In Teotihuacán, edited by Beatriz de la Fuente. 2 vols. La pintura mural prehispánica en México 1. Mexico City: Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1995.

Canuto, Marcello A., Francisco Estrada-Belli, Thomas G. Garrison, Stephen D. Houston, Mary Jane Acuña, Milan Kováč, Damien Marken, Philippe Nondédéo, Luke Auld-Thomas, Cyril Castanet, David Chatelain, Carlos R. Chiriboga, Tomáš Drápela, Tibor Lieskovský, Alexandre Tokovinine, Antolín Velasquez, Juan C. Fernández-Díaz, and Ramesh Shrestha. “Ancient Lowland Maya Complexity as Revealed by Airborne Laser Scanning of Northern Guatemala.” Science 361, no. 6409 (28 September 2018): 1–17.

Cervera Obregón, Marco Antonio. Guerreros Aztecas. Madrid: Nowtilus, 2011.

Cervera Obregón, Marco Antonio. “The Macuahuitl: An Innovative Weapon of the Late Post-Classic in Mesoamerica.” Arms & Armour 3, no. 2 (2006): 127–48.

Curry, Ann, and Glenn Foard. “Where Are the Dead of Medieval Battles: A Preliminary Survey.” Journal of Conflict Archaeology 11, nos. 2–3 (2016): 61–77.

Dahlin, Bruce H. “The Barricade and Abandonment of Chunchucmil: Implications for Northern Maya Warfare.” Latin American Antiquity 11, no. 3 (2000): 283–98.

Eitan, Avraham. “Rare Sword of the Israelite Period Found at Vered Jericho.” Israel Museum Journal 12 (1994): 62.

Follett, Prescott H. F. War and Weapons of the Maya. New Orleans: Department of Middle American Research, Tulane University, 1932, 394–409.

Gabriel, Richard A. The Military History of Ancient Israel. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003.

Gallenkamp, Charles. Maya: The Riddle and Rediscovery of a Lost Civilization. New York: David McKay, 1959.

Hadfield, M. Gary. “Neuropathology and the Scriptures.” BYU Studies 33, no. 2 (1993): 312–20.

Halperin, Christina T., Katherine A. Faust, Rhonda Taube, and Aurore Gigue. Mesoamerican Figurines: Small-Scale Indices of Large-Scale Social Phenomena. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2011.

Hassig, Ross. War and Society in Ancient Mesoamerica. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.

Hassig, Ross. Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

Hassig, Ross. “Anasazi Violence: A View from Mesoamerica.” In Deciphering Anasazi Violence: With Regional Comparisons to Mesoamerican and Woodland Cultures, edited by Peter Y. Bullock, 53–68. Santa Fe: HRM Books, 1998.

Hernandez, Christopher. “Battle Lines of the North American Southwest: An Inquiry into Prehispanic and Post-Contact Pueblo Tactics of War.” Kiva: Journal of Southwestern Anthropology and History 86, no. 1 (2020): 47–69.

Hernandez, Christopher, and Justin Bracken. “Unleashing Maya Warfare: Inquiry into the Practical Aspects of War-Making.” Ancient Mesoamerica 34, no. 1 (2023): 185–97.

Hobbs, T. R. A Times for War: A Study of Warfare in the Old Testament. Wilmington, Delaware: Michael Glazier, 1989.

Ichikawa, Akira. “Warfare in Prehispanic El Salvador.” Annual Papers of the Anthropological Institute 12 (2021): 178–96.

LeBlanc, Steven A. Prehistoric Warfare in the American Southwest. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1999.

Maeir, Aren. “The ‘Judahite’ Swords from the ‘Lachish’ Reliefs of Sennacherib.” Eretz Israel: Archaeological, Historical, and Geographical Studies 25 (1996): 210–14.

Martin, Simon. Ancient Maya Politics: A Political Anthropology of the Classic Period 150–900 CE. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020.

Maryon, Herbert. “Early Near Eastern Steel Swords.” American Journal of Archaeology 65, no. 2 (1961): 173–84.

Miller, Mary, and Simon Martin. Courtly Art of the Ancient Maya. London: Thames & Hudson, 2004.

Molin, G. “What Is a Kidon?” Journal of Semitic Studies 1, no. 4 (1956): 334–37.

Griswold Morley, Sylvanus Griswold. The Ancient Maya, 2nd ed. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1947.

Morton, Shawn G. and Meaghan M. Peuramaki-Brown, eds. Seeking Conflict in Mesoamerica: Operational, Cognitive, and Experiential Approaches. Louisville: University Press of Colorado, 2019.

Mazar, Amihai, and Shmuel Ahituv. “Tel Rehov in the Assyrian Period: Squatters, Burials, and a Hebrew Seal.” In The Fire Signals of Lachish: Studies in the Archaeology and History of Israel in the Late Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Persian Period in Honor of David Ussishkin, edited by Israel Finkelstein and Nadav Na’aman. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2011.

Mazar, Amihai. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible: 10,000–586 BC. New York: Doubleday, 1990.

Nielson, Axel E., and William H. Walker, eds. Warfare in Cultural Context: Practice, Agency, and the Archaeology of Violence. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2009.

Paludan, Ann. Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors. London: Thames & Hudson, 1998.

Puleston, Dennis E. and Donald W. Callender Jr. “Defensive Earthworks at Tikal.” Expedition 9, no. 3 (1967): 40–48.

Raaflaub, Kurt, and Nathan Rosenstein, eds. War and Society in the Ancient and Medieval World: Asia, the Mediterranean, Europe, and Mesoamerica. Washington, DC: Center for Hellenic Studies Trustees for Harvard University, 1999.

Rice, Glen E. and Stephen A. LeBlanc. Deadly Landscapes: Case Studies in Prehistoric Southwestern Warfare. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2001.

Rice, Prudence M., Don S. Rice, Timothy W. Pugh, and Rómulo Sánchez Polo. “Defensive Architecture and the Context of Warfare at Zacpeten.” In The Kowoj: Identity, Migration, and Geopolitics in Late Postclassic Peten, Guatemala, edited by Prudence M. Rice, Don S. Rice, 123–40. Denver: University Press of Colorado, 2009.

Ringle, William M. “The Art of War: Imagery of the Upper Temple of the Jaguars, Chichen Itza.” Ancient Mesoamerica 20 (2009): 15–44.

Robicsek, Francis. “The Weapons of the Ancient Maya.” In Circumpacifica Band I: Mittel und Sudamerika: Festschrift fur Thomas S. Barthel, edited by Bruno Illius and Matthew Laubscher, 369–96. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1990.

Roper, Matthew. “Swords and Cimeters in the Book of Mormon.” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 8, no. 1 (1999): 34–43, 77–78.

Roper, Matthew. “Eyewitness Descriptions of Mesoamerican Swords.” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 5, no. 1 (1996): 150–58.

Scherer, Andrew K., and John W. Verano, eds. Embattled Bodies, Embattled Places: War in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica and the Andes. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 2014.

Seevers, Boyd. Warfare in the Old Testament: The Organization, Weapons, and Tactics of Ancient Near Eastern Armies. Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Academic, 2013.

Sherrington, C. S. “Decerebrate Rigidity, and Reflex Coordination of Movements.” Journal of Physiology 22 (1898): 319.

Smith, Gregory. “‘All Bleeding Stops . . . Eventually’: Helaman’s Warriors and Modern Principles of Trauma Revisited.” In Steadfast in Defense of Faith: Essays in Honor of Daniel C. Peterson, edited by Shirley S. Ricks, Stephen D. Ricks, and Louis C. Midgley, 223–43. Orem, UT: Interpreter Foundation; Salt Lake City: Eborn Books, 2023.

Smoot, Stephen O. “The ‘Fiery Darts of the Adversary’ in 1 Nephi 15:24.” Interpreter: A Journal of Mormon Scripture 18 (2016): 5–9.

Sorenson, John L. “Fortifications in the Book of Mormon Account Compared with Mesoamerican Fortifications.” In Warfare in the Book of Mormon, edited by Stephen D. Ricks and William J. Hamblin, 425–44. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1990.

Sorenson, John L. “Last-Ditch Warfare in Ancient Mesoamerica Recalls the Book of Mormon.” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 9, no. 2 (2000): 44–53, 82–83.

Sullivan, Thelma D. “The Arms and Insignia of the Mexica.” Estudios de Cultura Nahuatl 10 (1972): 155–93.

Thompson, J. Eric S. The Rise and Fall of Maya Civilization, 2nd ed. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1966.

Trimm, Charlie. Fighting for the King and the Gods: A Survey of Warfare in the Ancient Near East. Atlanta: SBL Press, 2017.

Van Tuerenhout, Dirk. “Maya Warfare: Sources and Interpretations.” Revue internationale d’anthropologie et de sciences humaines 50 (2002): 129–52.

Van Horne, Wayne William. “The Warclub: Weapon and Symbol in Southeastern Indian Societies.” PhD diss., University of Georgia, 1993.

Van Horne, Wayne William. “Warclubs and Falcon Warriors: Martial Arts, Status, and the Belief System in Southeastern Mississippian Chiefdoms.” paper, Annual Meeting of the Central States Anthropological Society, Beloit, WI, 20 March 1993.

Vencl, Slavomil. “War and Warfare in Archaeology.” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 3 (1984): 116–32.

Vencl, Slavomil. “Stone Age Warfare.” In Ancient Warfare: Archaeological Perspectives, edited by John Carman and Anthony Harding, 57–72. Gloucestershire, UK: Sutton Publishing, 1999.

Wahl, David, Lysanna Anderson, Francisco Estrada-Belli & Alexandre Tokovinine. “Palaeoenvironmental, Epigraphic, and Archaeological Evidence of Total Warfare among the Classic Maya.” Nature Human Behavior 3 (2019): 1049–54.

Webster, David L. Defensive Earthworks at Becan, Campeche, Mexico: Implications for Warfare. New Orleans: Tulane University Middle American Research Institute, 1976.

Webster, David L. “Mesoamerica: The Not So Peaceful Civilization?” Cambridge Archaeological Journal 15, no. 1 (2005): 127–30.

Webster, David L. “The Not So Peaceful Civilization: A Review of Maya War.” Journal of World Prehistory 14, no. 1 (2000): 65–119.

Yadin, Yigael. The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands: In the Light of Archaeological Study. 2 vols. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963.

Zorn, Jeffrey R. “Reconsidering Goliath: An Iron Age I Philistine Chariot Warrior.” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 360 (2010): 9–11.

Chapter 3: Metals and Metallurgy

Barlow, Robert. “Straw Hats,” Tlalocan 2, no. 1 (1945): 94.

Benson, Elizabeth P., ed. The Olmec and Their Neighbors: Essays in Memory of Matthew W. Stirling. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collections, Trustees for Harvard University, 1981.

Blainey, Marc Gordon. “Surfaces and Beyond: The Political, Ideological, and Economic Significance of Ancient Maya Iron-Ore Mirrors.” master’s thesis, Trent University, 2007.

Cobb, Kim Cullen, Christopher S. Beekman, Thomas F Lam, Emily Kaplan. “The Craft, Use, and Distribution of Axe-Monies in Mesoamerica.” In Waves of Influence: Pacific Maritime Networks Connecting Mexico, Central America, and Northwestern South America, edited by Christopher S. Beekman and Collin McEwan, 347–415. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 2022.

Craddock, Paul T. Early Metal Mining and Production. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995.

Craddock, Paul T., and Janet Lang, eds. Mining and Metal Production through the Ages. London: British Museum Press, 2003.

Craddock, Paul T. “Brass, Zinc and the Beginnings of Chemical Industry.” Indian Journal of History of Science 53, no. 2 (2018): 148–81.

Eitan, Avraham. “Rare Sword of the Israelite Period Found at Vered Jericho.” Israel Museum Journal 12 (1994): 62.

Finkelstein, Israel, and Nadav Na’aman, eds. The Fire Signals of Lachish: Studies in the Archaeology and History of Israel in the Late Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Persian Period in Honor of David Ussishkin. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2011.

Gallaga, Emiliano, and Marc G. Blainey, eds. Manufactured Light: Mirrors in the Mesoamerican Realm. Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2016.

Hosler, Dorothy. The Sounds and Colors of Power: The Sacred Metallurgical Technology of Ancient West Mexico. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994.

Hosler, Dorothy. “Metal Production.” In The Postclassic Mesoamerican World, edited by Michael E. Smith and Frances F. Berdan. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2010.

Kan, Michael, Clement Meighan, and H. B. Nicholson. Sculpture of Ancient West Mexico: Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1970.

Maeir, Aren. “The ‘Judahite’ Swords from the ‘Lachish’ Reliefs of Sennacherib.” Eretz Israel: Archaeological, Historical, and Geographical Studies 25 (1996): 210–14.

Maldonado, Blanca, and Thilo Rehren. “Early Copper Smelting at Itziparatzico, Mexico.” Journal of Archaeological Science 36, no. 9 (2009): 1998–2006.

Maryon, Herbert. “Early Near Eastern Steel Swords.” American Journal of Archaeology 65, no. 2 (April 1961): 173–84.

Muhly, James D. “Mining and Metalwork in Ancient Western Asia.” In Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, edited by Jack M. Sasson, 3:1515. New York: Scribner, 1995.

Mountjoy, Joseph B., and Luis Torres M. “The Production and Use of Prehispanic Metal Artifacts in the Central Coastal Area of Jalisco, Mexico.” In The Archaeology of West and Northwest Mesoamerica, edited by Michael S. Foster and Phillip C. Weigand, 138–41. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1985.

Paris, Elizabeth H. “Metallurgy, Mayapan, and the Postclassic Mesoamerican World System.” Ancient Mesoamerica 19 (2008): 49–50.

Paris, Elizabeth H., Elizabeth Baquedano, Carlos Peraza Lope, Marilyn A. Masson, Douglas J. Kennett, Stanley Serafin, and Jennifer L. Meanwell. “Metalworking at Mayapan, Yucatan, Mexico: Discoveries from the R-183 Group.” Ancient Mesoamerica (2022): 432–54.

Pradeau, Alberto Francisco. Numismatic History of Mexico from the Pre-Columbian Epoch to 1823. Los Angeles: A. F. Pradeau, 1938.

Rensch, Calvin. Comparative Otomanguean Phonology. Bloomington: Indiana University Publications, 1976, 266–67.

Salgado, Slivia, Matthieu Ménager, Bárbara Arroyo, David Freidel. “Mesoamerican Iron-Ore Mirrors Found in Costa Rica: Unraveling the Interaction Between the Chibcha and Maya Regions.” Ancient Mesoamerica 35, no. 1 (2024): 42–57.

Schulze, Niklas, and Blanca E. Maldonado. “The Movement of Metal Goods in the Mesoamerican Late Postclassic Period: A Case Study from the Templo Mayor in Tenochtitlan.” In Interregional Interaction in Ancient Mesoamerica, edited by Joshua D. Englehardt and Michael D. Carrasco, 313–40. Carrasco. Louisville: University of Colorado Press, 2019.

Sorenson, John L. Mormon’s Codex: An Ancient American Book. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book; Provo, UT: Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship, 2013.

Thornton, Christopher P. “Of Brass and Bronze in Prehistoric Southwest Asia.” In Metals and Mines: Studies in Archaeometallurgy, edited by S. La Niece, D. R. Hook, and P. T. Craddock, 123–35. London: Archetype Publications, 2007.

Weeks, Lloyd. “Metallurgy.” In A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, vol. 1, edited by D. T. Potts, 311–12. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.

Chapter 4: Ancient Culture

Adams, Daniel B. “Last Ditch Archaeology.” Science 83, 4, No. 10 (December 1983): 28–37.

Adams Jr., William J. “Synagogues in the Book of Mormon.” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 9, no. 1 (2000): 4–13, 76.

Anawalt, Patricia Rieff. Indian Clothing before Cortes: Mesoamerican Costumes from the Codices. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1981.

Armerding, Carl Edwin. “Were David’s Sons Really Priests?” In Current Issues in Biblical and Patristic Interpretation: Studies in Honor of Merrill C. Tenney Presented by His Former Students, edited by Gerald F. Hawthorne, 75–86. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1975.

Asch, Nancy B., and David L. Asch. “Archaeobotany.” In Deer Track: A Late Woodland Village in the Mississippi Valley, edited by Charles R. McGimsey and Michael D. Conner, 44, 78–82. Kampsville, IL: Center for American Archaeology, 1985.

Avalos, Francisco. “An Overview of the Legal System of the Aztec Empire.” Law Library Journal 86, no. 2 (1994): 259–76.

Ayerza Jr., Ricardo and Wayne Coates. Chia: Rediscovering a Forgotten Crop of the Aztecs. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2005.

Bohrer, Vorsila L. “Domesticated and Wild Crops in the CAEP Study Area.” In Prehistoric Cultural Development in Central Arizona: Archaeology of the Upper New River Region, edited by P. M. Spoerl and G. J. Gumerman, 252. Carbondale: Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, 1984.

Cahill, Joseph P. “Genetic Diversity among Varieties of Chia (Salvia hispanica L.).” Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 51, no. 7 (2004): 773–81.

Canuto, Marcello A., Francisco Estrada-Belli, Thomas G. Garrison, Stephen D. Houston, Mary Jane Acuña, Milan Kováč, Damien Marken, Philippe Nondédéo, Luke Auld-Thomas, Cyril Castanet, David Chatelain, Carlos R. Chiriboga, Tomáš Drápela, Tibor Lieskovský, Alexandre Tokovinine, Antolín Velasquez, Juan C. Fernández-Díaz, and Ramesh Shrestha. “Ancient Lowland Maya Complexity as Revealed by Airborne Laser Scanning of Northern Guatemala.” Science 361, no. 6409 (2018): 1–17.

Charnay, Desire. The Ancient Cities of the New World. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1887.

Chinique de Armas, Y., William Mark Buhay, R Rodríguez, Sheahan Bestel, David G. Smith, Stephanie D Mowat, and Mirjana Roksandic. “Starch Analysis and Isotopic Evidence of Consumption of Cultigens among Fisher-Gatherers in Cuba: The Archaeological Site of Canimar Abajo, Matanzas.” Journal of Archaeological Science 58 (2015): 121–32

Christie, Jessica Joyce, ed. Maya Palaces and Elite Residences: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2003.

Clark, John E. “Archaeological Trends and Book of Mormon Origins.” BYU Studies 44, no. 4 (2005): 83–104.

Clark, John E. “Archaeology, Relics, and Book of Mormon Belief.” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 14, no. 2 (2005): 38–49, 71–74.

Coe, Michael D. “Archaeological Synthesis of Southern Veracruz and Tabasco.” In Archaeology of Southern Mesoamerica, part 2, edited by Gordon R. Willey. Handbook of Middle American Indians. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1965.

Crawley, A. E. “Drinks, Drinking.” In Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, edited by James Hastings, 5:73. New York: Scribner, 1951.

Dillon, Brian D., Kevin O. Pope, and Michael W. Love. “An Ancient Extractive Industry: Maya Salt Making at Salinas de las Nueve Cerros, Guatemala.” Journal of New World Archaeology 7, nos. 2–3 (1988): 37–41.

Dunne, Michael T., and William Green. “Terminal Archaic and Early Woodland Plant Use at the Gast Spring Site (13LA152), Southeast Iowa.” Mid-continental Journal of Archaeology 23 no. 1 (1998): 64.

Ekholm, Gordon F. “Wheeled Toys in Mexico.” American Antiquity 11, no. 4 (1946): 222–28.

Faber, Katherine T., Francesca Casadio, Admir Masic, Luc Robbiola, and Marc Walton. “Looking Back, Looking Forward: Materials Science in Art, Archaeology, and Art Conservation.” Annual Review of Materials Research 51 (2021): 435–60.

Gasser, Robert E. “Hohokam Use of Desert Plant Foods.” Desert Plants 3, no. 4 (1981–1982): 220–21.

Hayden, Brain. “Past to Present Uses of Stone Tools in the Maya Highlands.” In Lithic Studies among the Contemporary Highland Maya, edited by Brian Harden, 160–234. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1987.

Huerta-Acosta, Karla G., Summaira Riaz, Omar Franco-Mora, Juan G. Cruz-Castillo, M. Andrew Walker. ”The Genetic Diversity of Wild Grapes in Mexico.” Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 69 (2022): 1329–47.

Hunter, Andrea A. “Utilization of Hordeum pusillum (Little Barley) in the Midwest United States: Applying Rindos’ Co-Evolutionary Model of Domestication.” PhD diss., University of Missouri–Columbia, 1992.

Hyman, David S. Precolumbian Cements: A Study of the Calcareous Cements in Prehispanic Mesoamerican Building and Construction. PhD diss., John Hopkins University, 1970.

Kepecs, Susan. “Salt Sources and Production.” In The Postclassic Mesoamerican World, edited by Michael E. Smith and Francis F. Berdan, 126–30. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2003.

Kern, Annette I., Karl Kramer, and Ortwin Smailus. “Of Curing and Vultures.” In A Celebration of the Life and Work of Pierre Robert Colas, edited by Christophe Helmke and Frauke Sachse, 294–95. Munich: Saurwein, 2014.

King, Stacie M. “Thread Production in Early Postclassic Coastal Oaxaca, Mexico: Technology, Intensity, and Gender.” Ancient Mesoamerica 22, no. 2 (2011): 323–43.

Kisilevitz, Shua, and Oded Lipschits. “Another Temple in Judah!” Biblical Archaeology Review 46, no. 1 (2020): 40–49.

Klein, Kathryn, ed. The Unbroken Thread: Conserving Textile Traditions of Oaxaca. Los Angeles: Getty Conservative Institute, 1997.

La Barre, Weston. “Native American Beers.” American Anthropologist 40, no. 2 (1938): 224–34.

Levine, Lee I. The Ancient Synagogue: The First Thousand Years, 2nd ed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005.

Levine, Marc N., and David M. Carballo, eds. Obsidian Reflections: Symbolic Dimensions of Obsidian in Mesoamerica. Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2014.

Lombardo de Ruiz, Sonia. “La navegacion en la iconografía maya.” Arqueología Mexicana 6, no. 33 (1998): 40–47.

Lovell, W. George. Conquest and Survival in Colonial Guatemala: A Historical Geography of the Cuchumatan Highlands, 1500–1821, rev. ed. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1992.

Lunn, Nicholas P. “Prophetic Representations of the Divine Presence: The Theological Interpretation of the Elijah-Elisha Cycles.” Journal of Theological Interpretation 9, no. 1 (2015): 49–63.

Mathews, Joshua G. Melchizedek’s Alternative Priestly Order: A Compositional Analysis of Genesis 14:18–20 and Its Echoes throughout the Tanak. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2013.

McCafferty, Sharisse D., and Geoffrey G. McCafferty. “Spinning and Weaving Tools from Santa Isabel, Nicaragua.” Ancient Mesoamerica 19, no. 1 (2008): 143–56.

McCafferty, Sharisse D., and Geoffrey G. McCafferty. “Tickle Your Fancy? Spinning Feathers in Postclassic Cholula, Mexico.” Paper prepared for the 64th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Chicago, March 1999.

McKillop, Heather. “Underwater Archaeology, Salt Production, and Coastal Maya Trade at Stingray Lagoon, Belize.” Latin American Antiquity 6, no. 3 (1995): 214–28.

Muriel, Alejandro C. Martínez. “Don Martín, Chiapas: Inferencias económico-sociales de una comunidad arqueológica.” Master’s thesis, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1978.

Palerm, Angel. “Agricultural Systems and Food Patterns.” In Social Anthropology, edited by Manning Nash, 26–52. Handbook of Middle American Indians. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1967.

Powis, Terry G., W. Jeffrey Hurst, María del Carmen Rodríguez, Ortíz C. Ponciano, Michael Blake, David Cheetham, Michael D. Coe, and John G. Hodgson. “The Origins of Cacao Use in Mesoamerica.” Mexicon 30, no. 2 (2008): 36.

Rabiela, Teresa Rojas. “Agricultural Implements in Mesoamerica.” In Explorations in Ethnohistory: Indians of Central Mexico in the Sixteenth Century, edited by H. R. Harvey, Hanns J. Prem, 192. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984.

Rice, Prudence M., Don S. Rice, Timothy W. Pugh, and Rómulo Sánchez Polo. “Defensive Architecture and the Context of Warfare at Zacpeten.” In The Kowoj: Identity, Migration, and Geopolitics in Late Postclassic Peten, Guatemala, edited by Prudence M. Rice and Don S. Rice, 131–32. Denver: University Press of Colorado, 2009.

Ricks, Stephen D. “Israel’s Alternate Altars: Israelite-Jewish Temples, Sanctuaries, and Shrines beyond Jerusalem.” In Steadfast in Defense of Faith: Essays in Honor of Daniel C. Peterson, edited by Shirley S. Ricks, Stephen D. Ricks, and Louis C. Midgley, 319–30. Orem, UT: Interpreter Foundation; Salt Lake City: Eborn Books, 2023.

Rooke, Deborah W. Zadok’s Heirs: The Role and Development of the High Priesthood in Ancient Israel. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Roper, Matthew. “Joseph Smith, Central American Ruins, and the Book of Mormon.” In Approaching Antiquity: Joseph Smith and the Ancient World, edited by Lincoln H. Blumell, Matthew J. Grey, and Andrew H. Hedges, 141–62. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book; Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University, 2015.

Robicsek, Francis. “The Weapons of the Ancient Maya.” In Circumpacifica Band I: Mittel und Sudamerika: Festschrift fur Thomas S. Barthel, edited by Bruno Illius and Matthew Laubscher, 369–96. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1990.

Roper, Matthew. “Joseph Smith, Central American Ruins, and the Book of Mormon.” In Approaching Antiquity: Joseph Smith and the Ancient World, edited by Lincoln H. Blumell, Matthew J. Grey, and Andrew H. Hedges, 141–62. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book; Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University, 2015.

Seely, David Rolph. “Lehi’s Altar and Sacrifice in the Wilderness.” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 10, no. 1 (2001): 62–69, 80.

Singhal, D. P. India and World Civilization, 2 vols. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1969.

Szink, Terrence L., and John W. Welch. “King Benjamin’s Speech in the Context of Ancient Israelite Festivals.” In King Benjamin’s Speech: “That Ye May Learn Wisdom,” edited by John W. Welch and Stephen D. Ricks, 147–223. Provo, UT: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1998.

Smith, Robert F. “Book of Mormon Event Structure: The Ancient Near East.” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 5, no. 2 (1996): 98–147.

Seler, Eduard. “Leprosy in Old Mexican Documents.” In Eduard Seler, Collected Works in Mesoamerican Linguistics and Archaeology, edited by Frank E. Comparato, 2:55–56. Culver City, CA: Labyrinthos, 1991.

Sejourne, Laurette. “El templo prehispánico.” Cuadernos americanos 149 (1966): 129–67.

Sweeny, Marvin A. “Prophets and Priests in the Deuteronomistic History: Elijah and Elisha.” In Israelite Prophecy and the Deuteronomistic History: Portrait, Reality, and the Formation of a History, edited by Mignon R. Jacobs and Raymond F. Person Jr., 35–49. Atlanta: SBL Press, 2014.

Thompson, A. Keith. “Nephite Insights into Israelite Worship Practices before the Babylonian Captivity.” Interpreter: A Journal of Mormon Scripture 3 (2013): 155–95.

Varberg, Jeanette. “Between Egypt, Mesopotamia and Scandinavia: Late Bronze Age Glass Beads Found in Denmark.” Journal of Archaeological Science 54 (2015): 168–81.

von Bothmer, Roland, Niels Jacobsen, Rikke Bagger Jorgensen, and Elisa Nicora. “Revision of the Hordeum pusillum Group.” Nordic Journal of Botany 2, No. 4 (1982): 307–21.

von Hagen, Victor Wolfgang. Maya Explorer: John Lloyd Stephens and the Lost Cities of Central America and Yucatan. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1947.

Welch, John W. “Introduction.” Studia Antiqua: The Journal of the Student Society for Ancient Studies (2003): 9–12.

Welch, John W. “Legal Perspectives on the Slaying of Laban.” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 1, no. 1 (1992): 119–41.

Welch, John W. “Narrative Elements in Homicide Accounts.” Jewish Law Association Studies 27 (2017): 206–38.

Welch, John W. The Legal Cases in the Book of Mormon. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University Press; Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship, 2008.

Welch, John W. “The Temple in the Book of Mormon: The Temples at the Cities of Nephi, Zarahemla, and Bountiful.” In Temples of the Ancient World, edited by Donald W. Parry, 332–34. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book; Provo, UT: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1994.

Wilke, Carolyn. “The Ancient Origins of Glass.” Knowable Magazine, 18 November 2021.

Woods, Michael, and Mary B. Woods. Ancient Machine Technology: From Wheels to Forges. Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books, 2011.

Zeitlin, Solomon. “The Names Hebrew, Jew and Israel.” Jewish Quarterly Review 43, no. 4 (1953): 365–79.

Chapter 5: Book of Mormon Names

Ahituv, Shmuel. Echoes from the Past: Hebrew and Cognate Inscriptions from the Biblical Period. Jerusalem: CARTA, 2008.

Avigad, Nahman. Corpus of West Semitic Stamp Seals. Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1997.

Bowen, Matthew L. Name as Key-Word: Collected Essays on Onomastic Wordplay and the Temple in Mormon Scripture. Orem, UT: Interpreter Foundation; Salt Lake City: Eborn Books, 2018.

Bowen, Matthew L. Ancient Names in the Book of Mormon: Toward a Deeper Understanding of a Witness of Christ. Orem, UT: Interpreter Foundation; Salt Lake City: Eborn Books, 2023.

Bowen, Matthew L. “‘O Ye Fair Ones’—Revisited.” Interpreter: A Journal of Mormon Scripture 20 (2016): 315–44.

Bowen, Matthew L. “Alma: Young Man, Hidden Prophet.” Interpreter: A Journal of Mormon Scripture 19 (2016): 343–53.

Bowen, Matthew L. “‘Swearing by Their Everlasting Maker’: Some Notes on Paanchi and Giddianhi.” Interpreter: A Journal of Mormon Scripture 28 (2018): 164–68.

Bowen, Matthew L. “He Knows My Affliction: The Hill Onidah as Narrative Counterpart to the Rameumptom.” Interpreter: A Journal of Latter-day Saint Faith and Scholarship 34 (2020): 195–220.

Deutsch, Robert, and Michael Heltzer. New Epigraphic Evidence from the Biblical Period. Tel Aviv: Archaeological Center Publication, 1995.

Garsiel, Moshe. Biblical Names: A Literary Study of Midrashic Derivations and Puns. Ramat Gan, Israel: Bar-Ilan University Press, 1991.

Hess, Richard S. “Hypocoristic Names.” In Encyclopedia of Hebrew Language and Linguistics, edited by Geoffrey Khan. Leiden: Brill, 2013.

Nibley, Hugh. Lehi in the Desert / The World of the Jaredites / There Were Jaredites. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1988.

Nibley, Hugh. “Proper Names in the Book of Mormon.” In Nibley, An Approach to the Book of Mormon. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1988.

Oaks, Dallin D., Paul Baltes, and Kent Minson. Perspectives on Latter-day Saint Names and Naming: Names, Identity, and Belief. New York: Routledge, 2023.

Schade, Aaron P., and Matthew L. Bowen. “‘To Whom Is the Arm of the Lord Revealed?’” Religious Educator 16, no. 2 (2015): 91–111.

Rappleye, Neal, and Allen Hansen. “More Evidence for Alma as a Semitic Name.” Interpreter: A Journal of Latter-day Saint Faith and Scholarship 62 (2024): 415–28.

Ricks, Stephen D., Paul Y. Hoskisson, Robert F. Smith, and John Gee. Dictionary of Proper Names and Foreign Words in the Book of Mormon. Orem, UT: Interpreter Foundation; Salt Lake City: Eborn Books, 2022.

Sawyer, John. “What Was a Mošiaʿ?” Vetus Testamentum 15 (1965): 475–86.

Szink, Terrence L. “The Personal Name ‘Alma’ at Ebla.” Religious Educator 1 (Spring 2000): 53–56.

Tvedtnes, John A. “Names of People: Book of Mormon.” In Encyclopedia of Hebrew Language and Linguistics, edited by Geoffrey Khan, 2:787. Boston: Brill, 2013.

Tvedtnes, John A., John Gee, and Matthew Roper. “Book of Mormon Names Attested in Ancient Hebrew Inscriptions.” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 9, no. 1 (2000): 40–51, 78–79.

Chapter 6: Old World Journeys by Land and Sea

Abbasi, Iftikhar A. “Geological Assessment of the Khor Kharfot Sediments, Western Dhofar Region, Sultanate of Oman.” SQU Journal for Science 21, no. 1 (2016): 16–25.

Alsaleh, Mohammed Abdullah. “Natural Springs in Northwest Saudi Arabia.” Arabian Journal of Geosciences 10, no. 15 (2017): 1–13.

Aston, Warren P. Lehi and Sariah in Arabia: The Old World Setting of the Book of Mormon. Self-pub., Xlibris, 2015.

Aston, Warren P. “The Origins of the Nihm Tribe of Yemen: A Window into Arabia’s Past.” Journal of Arabian Studies 4, no. 1 (2014): 134–48.

Aston, Warren P. “Into Arabia: Lehi and Sariah’s Escape from Jerusalem.” BYU Studies Quarterly 58, no. 4 (2019): 117–25.

Aston, Warren P. “A Research Note: Continuing Exploration and Research in Oman.” Interpreter: A Journal of Latter-day Saint Faith and Scholarship 53 (2022): 255–64.

Aston, Warren P. “The Origins of the Nihm Tribe of Yemen: A Window into Arabia’s Past” Journal of Arabian Studies: Arabia, the Gulf, and the Red Sea 4, no. 1 (2014): 134–48.

Aston, Warren P. “A History of NaHoM” BYU Studies Quarterly 51, no. 2 (2012): 78–98.

Aston, Warren P., Godfrey J. Ellis, and Neal Rappleye. Into Arabia: Anchoring Nephi’s Account in the Real World. Orem, UT: Interpreter Foundation; Salt Lake City: Eborn Books, 202.

Brown, S. Kent, and Peter Johnson. Journey of Faith: From Jerusalem to the Promised Land. Provo, UT: Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship, 2006.

Brown, S. Kent. “New Light from Arabia on Lehi’s Trail.” In Echoes and Evidences of the Book of Mormon, edited by Donald W. Parry, Daniel C. Peterson, and John W. Welch, 55–125. Provo, UT: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 2002.

Brooks, Charles Wolcott. “Report of Japanese Vessels Wrecked in the North Pacific Ocean, from the Earliest Records to the Present Time.” Proceedings of the California Academy of Science 6 (1875): 9, 12.

Braden, Wythe E. “On the Probability of Pre-1778 Japanese Drifts to Hawaii.” Hawaiian Journal of History 10 (1976): 78.

Clark, David L. “Lehi and El Niño: A Method of Migration.” BYU Studies 30, no. 3 (1990): 1–7.

England, Eugene. “Through the Arabian Desert to a Bountiful Land: Could Joseph Smith Have Known the Way?” In Book of Mormon Authorship: New Light on Ancient Origins, edited by Noel B. Reynolds, 143–56. Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University, 1982.

Evans, Clifford, and Betty J. Meggers. “Transpacific Origin of Valdivia Pottery on Coastal Ecuador.” In XXXVI Congreso Internacional de Americanistas, España, 1964, edited by Alfredo Jiménez Núñez, 66. Sevilla: ECESA, 1966.

Goy, Julie, Michele Degli Esposti, Cécile Le Carlier de Veslud, and Anne Benoist. “Archaeometallurgical Research on Iron Age (1250–300 BCE) Copper Production in the Northern Hajjar Mountains (Oman Peninsula).” In Mining for Ancient Copper: Essays in Memory of Beno Rothenberg, edited by Erez Ben-Josef, 366–84. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2018.

Jett, Stephen C. Ancient Ocean Crossings: Reconsidering the Case for Contacts with the Pre-Columbian Americas. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2017.

Kehoe, Alice Beck. Traveling Prehistoric Seas: Critical Thinking on Ancient Transoceanic Voyages. New York: Routledge, 2016.

Larson, Bradley R. “Finding Nephi’s Ore.” Interpreter: A Journal of Latter-day Saint Faith and Scholarship 63 (2025): 297–322.

Maximenko, Nikolai, Jan Hafner, Masafumi Kamachi, and Amy MacFadyen. “Numerical Simulations of Debris Drift from the Great Japan Tsunami of 2011 and Their Verification with Observational Reports.” Marine Pollution Bulletin 132 (2018): 5–25.

Nibley, Hugh. Lehi in the Desert / The World of the Jaredites / There Were Jaredites. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book; Provo, UT: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1988.

Phillips, W. Revell. “Metals of the Book of Mormon.” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 9, no. 2 (2000): 36–41, 82

Potter, George, and Richard Wellington. Lehi in the Wilderness. Springville, UT: Cedar Fort, 2003.

Pritchard, James B. The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1958.

Rappleye, Neal. “An Ishmael Buried near Nahom.” Interpreter: A Journal of Latter-day Saint Faith and Scholarship 48 (2021): 33–48.

Rappleye, Neal. “The Place—or the Tribe—Called Nahom? NHM as Both a Tribal and Geographic Name in Modern and Ancient Yemen.” BYU Studies 62, no. 2 (2023): 49–72.

Rappleye, Neal. “The Nahom Convergence Reexamined: The Eastward Trail, Burial of the Dead, and the Ancient Borders of Nihm.” Interpreter: A Journal of Latter-day Saint Faith and Scholarship 60 (2024): 1–86.

Reynolds, Noel B. “Lehi’s Arabian Journey Updated” In Book of Mormon Authorship Revisited, edited by Noel B. Reynolds, 379–89. Provo, UT: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1997.

Riley, Carroll L., J. Charles Kelley, Campbell W. Pennington, and Robert L. Rand, eds. Man across the Sea: Problems of Pre-Columbian Contacts. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1971.

Sittig, Otto. “Compulsory Migrations in the Pacific Ocean.” In Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, July 1895, 519–35. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1896.

Smith, Robert F. “The Land of Jerusalem: The Place of Jesus’ Birth.” In Reexploring the Book of Mormon: A Decade of New Research, edited by John W. Welch, 170–72. Provo, UT: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies; Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1992.

Sorenson, John L., and Carl L. Johannessen. “Biological Evidence for Pre-Columbian Transoceanic Voyages.” In Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World, edited by Victor H. Mair, 238–97. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2006.

Sorenson, John L., and Carl L. Johannessen. World Trade and Biological Exchanges before 1492. Self-pub., 2013.

Sorenson, John L. “Ancient Voyages across the Ocean to America: From ‘Impossible’ to ‘Certain.’” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 14, no. 1 (2005): 4–17, 124–25.

Thomasson, Gordon C. “Revisiting the Land of Jerusalem.” In Pressing Forward with the Book of Mormon: The FARMS Updates of the 1990s, edited by John W. Welch and Melvin J. Thorne, 139–41. Provo, UT: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1999.

Chapter 7: Records, Writing, and Language

Bowman, Raymond A. “An Aramaic Religious Text in Demotic Script.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 3, no. 4 (1944): 219–31.

Calabro, David. “The Hieratic Scribal Tradition in Preexilic Judah.” In Evolving Egypt: Innovation, Appropriation, and Reinterpretation in Ancient Egypt, edited by Kerry Muhlestein and John Gee, 77–85. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2012.

Carter, Nicholas P., and Jeffrey Dobereiner. “Multispectral Imaging of an Early Classic Maya Codex Fragment from Uaxactun, Guatemala.” Antiquity 90, no. 351 (2016): 711–25.

Davila, James R. “The Treatise of the Vessels (Massekhet Kelim): A New Translation and Introduction.” In Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: More Non-Canonical Scriptures, edited by Richard Bauckham, James R. Davila, and Alexander Panayotov, 1:404–5. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2013.

FARMS Staff. Martin Harris’ Visit with Charles Anthon: Collected Documents on the Anthon Transcript and Shorthand Egyptian.” FARMS Papers. Provo, UT: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1990.

Fitzmyer, Joseph A. Responses to 101 Questions on the Dead Sea Scrolls. New York: Paulist Press, 1992.

Foster, Mary LeCron. “The Transoceanic Trail: The Proto-Pelagian Language Phylum.” Pre-Columbiana: A Journal of Long-Distance Contacts 1, nos. 1–2 (1998): 88–113.

Hamblin, William J. “Reformed Egyptian.” FARMS Review 19, no. 1 (2007): 31–35.

Hamblin, William J. “Sacred Writing on Metal Plates in the Ancient Mediterranean.” FARMS Review 19, no. 1 (2007): 37–54.

Hull, Kerry, “War Banners: A Mesoamerican Context for the Title of Liberty,” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 24, no. 1 (2015): 84–118.

Kister, Menahem. “Psalm 20 and Papyrus Amherst 63: A Window to the Dynamic Nature of Poetic Texts.” Vetus Testamentum 70, fasc. 3 (2019): 1–32.

MacKay, Michael Hubbard, Gerrit J. Dirkmaat, and Robin Scott Jensen. “The ‘Caracters’ Document: New Light on an Early Transcription of the Book of Mormon Characters.” Mormon Historical Studies 14, no. 1 (2013): 131–52.

Schade, Aaron P. “The Kingdom of Judah: Politics, Prophets, and Scribes in the Late Preexilic Period.” In Glimpses of Lehi’s Jerusalem, edited by John W. Welch, David Rolph Seely, and Jo Ann H. Seely, 315–19. Provo, UT: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 2004.

Smoak, Jeremy D. The Priestly Blessing in Inscription and Scripture. New York: Oxford University Press, 2016.

Snijders, Ludo, Tim Zaman, and David Howell. “Using Hyperspectral Imaging to Reveal a Hidden Precolonial Mesoamerican Codex.” Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 9 (2016): 143–49.

Sorenson, John L. Mormon’s Codex: An Ancient American Book. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book; Provo, UT: Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship, 2013.

Stuart, David. “A Foreign Past: The Writing and Representation of History on a Royal Ancestral Shrine at Copan.” In Copan: The History of An Ancient Maya Kingdom, edited by E. Wyllys Andres and William L. Fash. Santa Fe: School of American Research Press, 2005.

Stubbs, Brian D. Exploring the Explanatory Power of Semitic and Egyptian in Uto-Aztecan. Provo, UT: Grover Publications, 2015.

Stubbs, Brian D. Changes in Languages from Nephi to Now. Blanding, UT: Four Corners Digital Design, 2016.

Thompson, John S. “Lehi and Egypt.” In Glimpses of Lehi’s Jerusalem, edited by John W. Welch, David Rolph Seely, and Jo Ann H. Seely, 259–76. Provo, UT: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 2004.

Thompson, John S. “Looking Again at the Anthon Transcript(s).” Interpreter: A Journal of Latter-day Saint Faith and Scholarship 63 (2025): 353–66.

van der Toorn, Karel. “Eshem-Bethel and Herem-Bethel: New Evidence from Amherst Papyrus 63.” Zeitschrift fur die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 128, no. 4 (2016): 668–80.

van der Toorn, Karel. Becoming Diaspora Jews: Behind the Story of Elephantine. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2019.

Chapter 8: Events in Third Nephi

Blong, R. J. The Time of Darkness: Local Legends and Volcanic Reality in Papua New Guinea. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1982.

Caldcleugh, Alexander. “Some Account of the Volcanic Eruption of Coseguina in the Bay of Fonseca, Commonly Called the Bay of Conchagua, on the Western Coast of Central America.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 126 (1836): 28.

Gasperini, Luca, Enrico Bonatti, and Giuseppe Longo. “The Tunguska Mystery: 100 Years Later.” Scientific American, (June 2008).

Jordan, Benjamin R. “‘Many Great and Notable Cities Were Sunk’: Liquefaction in the Book of Mormon.” BYU Studies 38, no. 3 (1999): 119–22.

Jordan, Benjamin R. “Volcanic Destruction in the Book of Mormon: Possible Evidence from Ice Cores.” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 12, no. 1 (2003): 78–87, 118–19.

Kowallis, Bart J. “In the Thirty and Fourth Year: A Geologist’s View of the Great Destruction in 3 Nephi.” BYU Studies 27, no. 3 (1997–1998): 136–90.

Ross, T. “Narrative of the Effects of the Eruption from the Tamboro Mountain, in the Island of Sumbawa, on the 11th and 12th of April 1815.” Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen 8, no. 10 (1816): 14.

Galindo, Juan. “Eruption of the Volcano Coseguina.” American Journal of Science and Arts 28 (July 1835): 332.

Macias J. L., J. M. Espíndola, A. Garcia-Palomo, K. M. Scott, S. Hughes, and J C. Mora. “Late Holocene Pelean-Style Eruption at Tacana Volcano, Mexico and Guatemala: Past, Present, and Future Hazards.” Geological Society of America Bulletin 112, No. 8 (2000): 1234–49.

Plunket, Patricia, and Gabriela Uruñuela. “Social and Cultural Consequences of a Late Holocene Eruption of Popocatépetl in Central Mexico.” Quaternary International 151 (2006): 22–24.

Plunket, Patricia, and Gabriela Uruñuela. “Mountain of Sustenance, Mountain of Destruction: The Prehispanic Experience with Popocatépetl Volcano.” Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 170 (2008): 111–20.

Plunket, Patricia, and Gabriela Uruñuela. ”The Archaeology of a Plinian Eruption of the Popocatepetl Volcano.” In The Archaeology of Geological Catastrophes, edited by W. J. McGuire, D. R. Griffiths, P. L. Hancock, I. Stewart, Bill McGuire, 195–203. London: Geological Society of London, 2000.

Ritner, Robert K., and Nadine Moeller. “The Ahmose ‘Tempest Stela,’ Thera and Comparative Chronology.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 73, no. 1 (2014): 1–19.

Sheets, Payson D. “The Effects of Explosive Volcanism on Ancient Egalitarian, Ranked, and Stratified Societies in Middle America.” In The Angry Earth: Disaster in Anthropological Perspective, edited by Anthony Oliver-Smith and Susanna Hoffman, 36–42. New York: Routledge, 1999.

Simkin, Tom, and Richard Fiske. Krakatau 1883: The Volcanic Eruption and Its Effects. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1983.

Sorenson, John L. Mormon’s Codex: An Ancient American Book. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book; Provo, UT: Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship, 2013.