The Literary Structure of Alma 21–22
Author: Derek Squire
Date: 2025-10-17T09:15:07+00:00
Keywords: Alma;Book of Mormon;chiasmus;chiastic analysis;Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints;LDS;Mormonism
Description: Abstract: This article is part two of an analysis of the literary structure of Alma 17–27. The current article analyzes the literary structure of Alma 21–22, which is “an account of the preaching of Aaron and Muloki and their brethren to the Lamanites” as noted in the heading before Alma 21. These two chapters were originally a single chapter in the first edition of the Book of Mormon. When Alma 21–22 is treated as a single chapter, it appears to have been organized into an extended parallel structure (A-B-C-A'-B'-C') in which matching elements share many strong links and parallels. This liter
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The Literary Structure of Alma 21–22

Derek Squire

Abstract: This article is part two of an analysis of the literary structure of Alma 17–27. The current article analyzes the literary structure of Alma 21–22, which is “an account of the preaching of Aaron and Muloki and their brethren to the Lamanites” as noted in the heading before Alma 21. These two chapters were originally a single chapter in the first edition of the Book of Mormon. When Alma 21–22 is treated as a single chapter, it appears to have been organized into an extended parallel structure (A-B-C-A'-B'-C') in which matching elements share many strong links and parallels. This literary structure highlights the extraordinary range of missionary experiences that can occur while preaching the gospel. There also appears to be an eight-element chiasm that consists of Alma 21–22 and the conclusion to the preaching efforts of the sons of Mosiah in the first fifteen verses of Alma 23. This is the second of three macro-chiasms characterizing the overall structure of Alma 17–27.

As a follow-up to a previous article, “The Literary Structure of Alma 17–20,”1 this article is a literary analysis of the next original chapter of the Book of Mormon, Alma 13, which comprises Alma 21–22 in the 2013 edition of the Book of Mormon.2 The same methodology used in that article to identify and analyze literary units is used here as well.3 As recorded in the heading before Alma 21, the narrative shifts from an account of Ammon’s activities among the Lamanites to “the preaching of Aaron and Muloki and their brethren to the Lamanites.” This chapter includes Aaron’s preaching to the king over all the land (Lamoni’s father) in the land of Nephi and his subsequent conversion unto the Lord.

Much like Ammon’s preaching to the Lamanites in the land of Ishmael and Lamoni’s conversion unto the Lord, events from Alma 21–22 had lasting ramifications for both the Lamanites and the Nephites. In Alma 17–20, the literary structure is highly detailed and carefully crafted. It is, therefore, not surprising to find tight literary structure and careful attention to detail in this chapter as well. The six major literary units in this chapter form an extended parallel structure (A-B-C-A'-B'-C') in which the matching units share significant keywords, phrases, and themes.

In addition to this overall structure for Alma 21–22, the first fifteen verses of Alma 23 are analyzed in this article. A previous article, “The Literary Structure of Alma 23–27,”4 includes a proposal for a macro-chiasm that begins with Alma 23:16. The outer boundaries of the macro-chiasm are effectively framed by the double-mention of the word distinguished in Alma 23:16 and Alma 27:26–27. This frames the complete narrative account of the people of Anti-Nephi-Lehi from inception of calling themselves by that name to their name change to the people of Ammon in the land of Jershon. This leaves the necessary treatment of the first fifteen verses of Alma 23. These verses perform important structural and hermeneutical functions in relation to Alma 21–22 which I examine in depth.

In this article, I will do the following:

- Provide a summary of the account of Aaron and his brethren’s preaching in Alma 21–22.

- Present the six-element extended parallel structure in Alma 21–22 and provide evidence showing why such a structure could have been intentionally employed by the author.

- Analyze the paired elements from this extended parallel structure.

- Examine Alma 23:1–15 for structural and interpretive purposes in relation to Alma 21–22.

- Present the eight-element chiasm for Alma 21:1–23:15.

- Analyze the paired elements from the macro-chiasm in Alma 21:1–23:15 and explain why this structure may have been intentionally crafted by Mormon or Alma.5

- Summarize the key findings and insights gleaned from the literary analysis of Alma 21:1–23:15.

In addition to these seven objectives, an appendix is included that provides the analysis behind delimiting the major literary units in Alma 21–22. The appendix is provided for the benefit of those wishing to dig deeper into the six elements of the extended parallel structure. However, the main thesis of this article can still be understood by accepting the major literary units that I will define.

The Preaching of Aaron and His Brethren in Alma 21–22

The heading before Alma 21 explicitly marks a shift from the previous chapter. Alma 17–20 focused on Ammon’s preaching among the Lamanites. In Alma 21–22, the narrative shifts to the preaching of Ammon’s brother, Aaron. The narrative goes all the way back to when the sons of Mosiah first separated themselves from each other in the borders of the land of the Lamanites (Alma 21:1; cf. Alma 17:13, 17). Aaron decides to first go to the city of Jerusalem, a city built and inhabited by Lamanites, Amalekites,6 and Amulonites. He does not have any success preaching there, so he departs and goes next to the village of Ani-Anti, where he finds Muloki, Ammah, and some of his other brethren preaching the word (Alma 21:11). The people contend with them about the word, so they all depart Ani-Anti and come over into the land of Middoni. Aaron is cast into prison in Middoni along with some of his brethren (Alma 21:12–13). They are eventually delivered out of prison by Lamoni and Ammon as the reader previously learned in Alma 20:28–30. As Alma 22 opens, Aaron is led by the Spirit to the land of Nephi, even to the house of the king over all the land, Lamoni’s father. In a scene that parallels Ammon’s experience preaching to King Lamoni in several striking ways (while also displaying some distinct differences), Aaron preaches to Lamoni’s father who believes, cries unto the Lord for salvation, and is struck as if he were dead. Aaron raises him from the earth. The king then ministers to his household, who all become converted unto the Lord.

At first glance, the conclusion to this chapter comes unexpectedly and appears to serve no literary purpose. The king requests Aaron and his brethren to stand before the multitude gathered at the king’s palace and preach the word to them. The king then sends a proclamation to all his people throughout the land, but instead of learning the contents of this proclamation and its impact on the people, there is a detailed and somewhat lengthy digression concerning Lamanite and Nephite geography, and then the chapter abruptly ends. In the last verse of the chapter, Mormon writes that he will now “return again to the account of Ammon, and Aaron, Omner and Himni, and their brethren” (Alma 22:35). In both the delimitation of major literary units and in the analysis of the structures identified in this chapter, explanations will be given as to why the chapter perhaps ends at this juncture.

The Extended Parallel Structure (A-B-C-A'-B'-C')
in Alma 21–22

The six major literary units in this chapter form an extended parallel structure with corresponding elements7 as shown here:

A Aaron preaches in Jerusalem; an Amalekite asks Aaron seven questions; Aaron, in turn, asks the Amalekite, “Believest thou that the Son of God shall come?” The Amalekite says four times that his people do not believe; Aaron opens the scriptures to him and teaches about the death, sufferings, Atonement, and Resurrection of Christ; due to rejection, Aaron leaves Jerusalem for Ani-Anti (21:1–11)

B Aaron and certain of his brethren are cast into prison in Middoni; they are delivered from prison by the hand of Lamoni and Ammon; they again go forth to declare the word, bringing many to the knowledge of the truth (21:12–17)

C Literary aside on Ammon and Lamoni in the land of Ishmael; they return to the land of Ishmael and teach the people; Lamoni declares unto his people that they are free and have the liberty to worship God according to their desires; the land under Lamoni’s reign is highlighted (21:18–23)

A' Aaron preaches to the king over all the land in Nephi; the king and Aaron ask seven questions of each other including Aaron twice asking the king, “Believest thou?” The king says he will believe; Aaron reads the scriptures to the king and teaches him about the sufferings, death, Atonement, and Resurrection of Christ (22:1–16)

B' The king over all the land cries to the Lord and is struck as if dead; Aaron puts forth his hand and raises the king from the earth; the king ministers unto the people, and his whole household is converted unto the Lord (22:17–26)

C' Literary aside on the geography of Lamanite and Nephite lands; the king sends a proclamation to his people concerning the sons of Mosiah and their brethren; the land under the king’s reign is detailed (22:27–35)

It may be easier to see the correspondences between matching units in table form, so a table is provided below.

Alma 21:1–11 (A)

Alma 22:1–16 (A')

1. Questions are prevalent in this unit. The Amalekite asks seven questions (21:5–6) and Aaron asks the Amalekite one question (21:7).

1. Questions are prevalent in this unit. The king asks three questions (22:5, 6, 9) and Aaron asks two questions (22:7, 10).

2. The Amalekite says they have “built sanctuaries” (21:6).

2. The king says he “granted unto [the Amalekites] that they should build sanctuaries” (22:7).

3. “Aaron began to open the scriptures unto them” (21:9).

3. “Aaron did expound unto him the scriptures” (22:13).

4. Aaron teaches about the resurrection of the dead (21:9).

4. Aaron teaches that Christ “breaketh the bands of death” (22:14).

5. Aaron teaches about the “death and sufferings of Christ and the atonement of his blood” (21:9).

5. Aaron teaches that “the sufferings and death of Christ atone for their sins” (22:14), with “sufferings and death” in inverted order.

6. Aaron asks, “Believest thou?” (21:7). The Amalekite says four times that they do not believe (22:8).

6. Aaron asks, “Believest thou?” twice in 22:7, 10. The king says he believes or will believe three times (22:7, 11).

Alma 21:12–17 (B)

Alma 22:17–26 (B')

1. Aaron and his brethren are taken and cast into prison (21:13).

1. The queen twice commands that Aaron and his brethren be slain (22:19, 21).

2. Aaron and his brethren are “delivered by the hand of Lamoni and Ammon” (21:14).

2. Aaron “put forth his hand and raised the king from the earth” (22:22).

3. The people “harden their hearts” (21:12).

3. Aaron knew of “the hardness of the hearts of the people” (22:22).

4. Thematic Parallels:

4. Thematic Parallels:

A. Aaron and his brethren are “taken and cast into prison” (21:13) and “suffered many things” (21:14).

A. The king prays and then is “struck as if he were dead” (22:18).

B. Aaron and his brethren are “delivered . . . fed and clothed” (21:14).

B. The king is raised from the earth and stood upon his feet (22:22).

C. Aaron and his brethren “went forth again to declare the word” (21:15), and “they brought many to the knowledge of the truth” (21:17).

C. “The king stood forth and began to minister unto [his household] and . . . his whole household were converted unto the Lord” (22:23).

Alma 21:18–23 (C)

Alma 22:27–35 (C')

1. This is a literary aside that is clearly bracketed off by the statement, “Now . . . we will return to the account of Aaron and his other brethren” (22:1).

1. This is a literary aside that is clearly delimited by the concluding statement, “And now I . . . return again to the account of Ammon and Aaron, Omner and Himni, and their brethren” (22:35).

2. King Lamoni’s father “granted unto [Lamoni] that he might reign over the people which were in the land of Ishmael and in all the land round about” (21:21).

2. “The king sent a proclamation throughout all the land amongst all his people which was in all his land, which was in all the regions round about” (22:27).

3. The theme of “the liberty of worshipping the Lord their God according to their desires” is explicitly highlighted (21:22).

3. The theme of freedom in worshipping God is implied by the king’s action to send “a proclamation throughout all the land” (22:27). The proclamation allows the sons of Mosiah to freely preach the word without harm, “that the word of God might have no obstruction” (23:3).

Why Use an Extended Parallel Structure?

Why would Mormon put this account into the form of an extended parallel structure? This literary form is typically used to reinforce concepts and principles that may be difficult or complex. It is also used to aid in memorization.8 In this case, the author gives readers the opportunity to appreciate and understand the text at a different level. The structure of the chapter invites certain comparisons that lead to increased understanding and clarification of difficult portions of the text. A reader’s study of the Book of Mormon is also enriched by the generation of new questions that arise from such a reading of the text.

By analyzing the structure of this chapter specifically, the reader is invited to compare Aaron’s preaching efforts in the city of Jerusalem to his preaching efforts in the land of Nephi. Numerous questions develop from such comparative analysis. Why was Aaron successful in one location and not the other? Did Aaron teach the same principles of the gospel in the same manner in both instances? How did those to whom Aaron preached respond differently? The structure of this chapter also invites the reader to compare Aaron and his brethren’s imprisonment in Middoni with the king being struck as if he were dead and falling to the earth in parallel sections of the text. What similarities are there between Aaron and his brethren’s imprisonment and the king’s impairment? Why did these things happen before both Aaron and the king were successful in converting others unto the Lord? Finally, the two literary digressions are to be compared. Are these two asides only parallel to each other due to their equivalent literary form and function? Or is there more to the comparison of these two sections that helps the reader better understand their meaning and purpose? Analyzing the structure of this chapter not only prompts the reader to ask additional questions about the text, but also leads to some valuable insights in attempting to answer many of these questions.

Correlations between Matching Elements

Six major literary units of Alma 21–22 have been identified and delimited in the appendix. Analysis can then be performed to see if these units exhibit an underlying structure by the means of links, patterns, and parallels found between them. As proposed at the beginning of this article, these units form an extended parallel pattern (A-B-C-A'-B'-C') in which the first and fourth elements (A and A') are parallel to each other, as are the second and fifth elements (B and B'), and the third and sixth elements (C and C'). There are meaningful correlations between the parallel elements in this chapter that will be detailed in the following sections.

A and A' correspondences (Alma 21:1–11 and 22:1–16)

Elements A and A' describe two of Aaron’s preaching episodes amongst the Lamanites—the first in Jerusalem, Ani-Anti, and Middoni, and the second in the land of Nephi. In both elements, questions are a significant literary device used to shape the dialogue and flow of Aaron’s preaching. In A, Aaron preaches in the city of Jerusalem. An Amalekite contends with him in a synagogue there and asks him seven questions in rapid succession in 21:5–6.9 Aaron responds to this barrage of questions by asking this unnamed Amalekite just one key question in verse 7. In A', Aaron preaches to the king over all the land in the city of Nephi. Questions are again a dominant feature of the dialogue. Seven more questions are asked in this element, five by the king and two by Aaron.

In both elements, Aaron uses the scriptures to preach the word. In A, “Aaron began to open the scriptures unto them” (21:9). In A', Aaron began “reading the scriptures unto the king” (22:12) and “did expound unto him the scriptures” (22:13). These are the only references to scriptures in this chapter. In both elements, Aaron teaches about the sufferings and death of Christ (21:9; 22:14). In A, Aaron teaches about the “death and sufferings of Christ” (21:9). In A', Aaron testifies of “the sufferings and death of Christ” (22:14). The ordering of the terms death and sufferings is inverted in A'. Again, these terms are unique to these two locations in the chapter. Aaron also teaches about the Atonement of Christ in these two elements and nowhere else in the chapter, using the word atonement in 21:9 and atoneth in 22:14. Aaron also teaches about the Resurrection in both elements but using different terminology. In A, Aaron teaches the Amalekite “concerning the resurrection of the dead” (21:9). In A', Aaron teaches the king that Christ “breaketh the bands of death, that the grave shall have no victory and that the sting of death should be swallowed up in the hopes of glory” (22:14). Although the word resurrection does not appear in A', these are the only two occurrences in this chapter which cover the theme of the Resurrection.

The theme of belief is particularly prominent in both elements. Aaron asks, “Believest thou?” to both the Amalekite and the king over all the land, but he asks the king twice (21:7; 22:7, 10). In A, the Amalekite says four times in just one verse that his people do not believe (21:8). Six total instances of the word believe are found in A. In A', in contrast to the Amalekite’s response, the king responds that he does believe or will believe Aaron’s words on three separate occasions (22:7, 11). The word believe occurs seven times, and the word believing is used once in this element. The only occurrence of the word believe in this chapter outside of these two elements is used in 21:12 to succinctly state that few in the land of Middoni believed on the words that Aaron and his brethren taught.

Repentance is another shared motif between these two elements. Repentance is mentioned twice in A and four times in A' (21:6; 22:6, 14, 16). Nowhere else is repentance mentioned in this chapter. Building sanctuaries is also mentioned only twice in this chapter with both references coming in these paired elements (21:6; 22:7). Such numerous and strong parallels between these two elements provides evidence that Mormon may have aligned these two sections intentionally to draw out comparisons between the two.

B and B' correspondences (Alma 21:12–17 and 22:17–26)

The parallels in elements B and B' are more conceptual and involve fewer keyword parallels than are found in elements A and A'. Thematically, the two storylines match up quite well. In B, Aaron and his brethren are cast into prison in the land of Middoni after preaching to the people with little success. After being “delivered by the hand of Lamoni and Ammon . . . they went forth again to declare the word” (21:14–15) and eventually bring many to the knowledge of the truth. In B', the king was “struck as if he were dead” (22:18). The queen and the multitude that gathers initially do not believe Aaron and his brethren. Aaron “put forth his hand and raised the king from the earth,” attempting to keep a great contention and a disturbance from developing among the people (22:22). Once raised from the earth, the king ministers unto his household, and they are all converted unto the Lord.

In each element, a party is either imprisoned or otherwise impaired, the party is delivered from the situation, and the party then preaches the word to others and successfully brings many unto the Lord. In each element, most people do not believe in the words of Aaron and his brethren initially; however, success eventually comes. Aaron and his brethren experience opposition in both units. In B, they were taken and cast into prison and suffered many things there (21:13–14). In B', the queen twice commands that Aaron and his brethren be taken and slain (22:19, 21).

In both elements, the “hand” is specifically mentioned as the agent used to help deliver the subject—Aaron and his brethren in B and the king over all the land in B' (21:14; 22:22). These are the only two mentions of the singular noun hand used in this way in this chapter.10 Other key terms and themes that link these two elements include the following: the hard hearts of the people (21:12; 22:22);11 the phrase preach the word (21:12, 16; 22:26); and the phrase Aaron and his brethren, which is only used once outside of these two elements, in 22:1, in which Mormon returns to writing the account of their doings (21:13; 22:19–21).

C and C' correspondences (Alma 21:18–23 and 22:27–35)

Perhaps the strongest link between these two units is the fact that they are both asides, or digressions, from the main narrative account of Aaron and his brethren. Mormon clearly defines the nature of these sections of text by ending each unit in the same manner: “Now . . . we will return to the account of . . .” (22:1) and “Now I . . . return again to the account of . . .” (22:35). By using such phrasing, the preceding text is clearly indicated as not a part of the main narrative and should be treated differently. The use of two such phrases in the same chapter also provides the reader a clue that the sections of text preceding each of these statements are meant to be compared.

In C, Mormon wraps up the narrative of Lamoni’s people in the land of Ishmael by describing their positive response to Ammon and Lamoni’s preaching after they deliver Aaron and his brethren from prison in Middoni. Mormon does not conclude their story in the previous chapter, so this is a welcome addition for the reader to learn of the fruits of Ammon and Lamoni’s labors in the land of Ishmael after Lamoni’s conversion to the Lord. In C', Mormon gives a somewhat lengthy description of Lamanite and Nephite geography. Mormon details how the land is divided up between the Lamanites and the Nephites and notes the Nephites’ wisdom in hemming in the Lamanites on the south with their possession and defense of the land Bountiful.

These elements are united by the theme of freedom and liberty in worshipping God. In C, King Lamoni grants his people “the liberty of worshipping the Lord their God according to their desires” (21:22). In C', the king over all the land “sent a proclamation throughout all the land amongst all his people which was in all his land” (22:27). The contents of this proclamation are not shared until the next chapter, in 23:1–3, but the main topic of the proclamation can be inferred from the context given before the king sends the proclamation. In 22:26, the king causes Aaron and his brethren to “stand forth in the midst of the multitude and that they should preach the word unto them.” The king’s proclamation allows Aaron, Ammon, and their brethren to preach the word among all his people without fear of harm coming upon them for doing so. They were to have “free access to their houses and also their temples and their sanctuaries” (23:2).

Both elements include a declaration or proclamation from the king. Lamoni “did also declare unto them . . . that they were a free people, that they were free from the oppressions of the king . . . and he also declared unto them that they might have the liberty of worshipping the Lord their God according to their desires” (21:21–22). In C', “the king sent a proclamation throughout all the land” (22:27), as already noted.

Both elements also highlight the kings’ respective lands. These lands are described in similar language in each element. In C, Lamoni reigns “over the people which were in the land of Ishmael and in all the land round about” (21:21). In C', the king sent a proclamation “amongst all his people which was in all his land, which was in all the regions round about” (22:27).

In the appendix, an explanation is given as to why the chapter ends where it does. A second possibility involves the extended parallel structure of this chapter. The fact that there are two well-defined literary asides in matching elements of a precise extended parallel structure provides a valid structural reason to intentionally end the chapter after 22:35. A third reason why the chapter ends where it does will be given in the analysis of matching elements C and C' of the chiasm below.

Analysis of Alma 23:1–15 in Relation to Alma 21–22

While Alma 21–22 is its own original chapter in the Book of Mormon, analysis of the first fifteen verses of Alma 23 appears to show that they join with Alma 21–22 to form a distinct major literary unit. This leads to a few questions. Why doesn’t the original chapter of the Book of Mormon include all of Alma 21:1–23:15 instead of ending with Alma 22:35? Is there strong enough evidence to show that Alma 23:15 could serve as the conclusion to a major literary unit even though it is in the middle of another chapter and not at an explicit breaking point in the text? If Alma 23:15 is indeed the end of a major literary unit, what additional insights can be gleaned by analyzing Alma 21:1–23:15 as a distinct literary unit? The following sections attempt to answer these questions.

Why did the original chapter end with Alma 22:35 instead of Alma 23:15?

The heading before Alma 21 describes what is to follow: “An account of the preaching of Aaron and Muloki and their brethren to the Lamanites.” However, to what block of text does this heading relate? In the 1920 edition of the Book of Mormon, “comprising chapters 21 to 26 inclusive” was added to the end of this heading.12 This statement was not originally on the plates; rather, it was added by the committee of Apostles that worked on producing this edition.13 In the 2013 printing of the Book of Mormon, it was updated to the following: “comprising chapters 21 through 25.”

Alternatively, it is possible that the original heading relates only to present-day Alma 21–22. The two verses that signal the return to the main narrative after brief asides in Alma 22 provide further light on this issue. Alma 22:1 begins, “Now . . . we will return to the account of Aaron and his other brethren.” Alma 22:35 begins, “And now I . . . return again to the account of Ammon, and Aaron, Omner, and Himni, and their brethren.” Earlier I mentioned that these verses ended sections of text in the same manner, but a careful reading of them reveals significant differences. Alma 22:1 returns to the account of Aaron and his other brethren which is in harmony with the heading before Alma 21. While Ammon is, of course, one of Aaron’s brethren, Ammon’s name always appears first when both brothers are listed together. Thus, “Aaron and his other brethren” appears to refer to Aaron, Muloki, and their brethren from the heading. Alma 22:35, on the other hand, also lists Ammon, Omner, and Himni. Apparently, adding all of Aaron’s brothers back into the narrative at this point was significant enough to justify a chapter break in the original Book of Mormon. Also, the heading before Alma 21 does not include Ammon, Omner, and Himni, so the heading more suitably fits with only Alma 21–22 instead of chapters 21–25 or chapters 21–26.

Is there strong enough evidence to support Alma 23:15 as the conclusion to a major literary unit?

In two previous articles, analysis was presented showing Alma 17–2014 and Alma 23:16–27:3015 to be distinct literary units, both of which could be structured as macro-chiasms. Both units exhibit strong literary framing marking their respective outer boundaries. This leaves the block of text from Alma 21:1–23:15 in between. Does this block of text serve as a major literary unit on its own? Thematically, Alma 17–20 consists of Ammon’s teachings to King Lamoni in the land of Ishmael and Alma 23:16–27:30 consists of the history of the people of Anti-Nephi-Lehi. Alma 21–22 consists of Aaron’s preaching to the Lamanites, but this could be expanded to include the remainder of the preaching of the sons of Mosiah to the Lamanites. Somewhat surprisingly, no active preaching to the Lamanites is mentioned in the narrative after Alma 23:6 through the end of Alma 27. The only other references to preaching in these chapters are looking back to when the sons of Mosiah had preached to their Lamanite brethren (see Alma 24:7, 25:6, and 26:23). The fruits from their preaching are detailed in Alma 23:4–15. The list of converted Lamanite cities, as well as the explicit exclusion of Amalekites and Amulonites from this list, brings a sense of finality to the preaching narrative.

An inclusio neatly frames Alma 21:1–23:15 together as a distinct literary unit. Only at the beginning and end of this unit are three groups mentioned together whom Aaron and his brethren encountered in Lamanite lands; namely, Lamanites, Amalekites, and Amulonites (21:2; 23:14). The influence of the Amalekites and Amulonites on the Lamanites is also highlighted here and nowhere else within the unit. In 21:3, the Amalekites and Amulonites are described as being “still harder [than the Lamanites]. Therefore they did cause the Lamanites that they should harden their hearts.” In 23:14, the Amalekites and Amulonites are described in similar terms, having a similar influence on the Lamanites. They “did harden their hearts and also the hearts of the Lamanites in that part of the land whithersoever they dwelt.”

What additional insights can be gleaned by analyzing this text as a distinct literary unit?

Unique insights into the text can be obtained through a chiastic reading of Alma 21:1–23:15 as I will detail in the next section. One intriguing possibility comes from a parallel between Alma 21:5 and 23:14. Alma 21:5 mentions “an Amalekite” that arose to contend with Aaron. Then, at the end of the summary given of those who were converted unto the Lord, the reader learns that “the Amalekites were not converted, save only one” (23:14). This could be just one more point of framing to identify Alma 21:1–23:15 as a literary unit. However, Mormon may have wanted readers to ponder the possible connection between the only two instances of a single Amalekite being mentioned in the text. Perhaps the contentious Amalekite became the one Amalekite convert akin to other unlikely converts in the Book of Mormon such as Alma; Alma, son of Alma; the sons of Mosiah; and Zeezrom, to name a few.

The central units of the macro-chiasm focus on Aaron’s preaching to the king and the king’s conversion, an appropriate climax to the story. The king’s conversion is a huge turning point in the preaching efforts of the sons of Mosiah. The king’s subsequent proclamation allowing them to preach freely among the Lamanites, along with the king’s endorsement of their message, leads to the conversion of thousands of Lamanites in seven cities or lands. The central location of these units within the macro-chiasm mirrors the central location of Ammon’s preaching to King Lamoni and Lamoni’s conversion within the macro-chiasm in Alma 17–20. There are many significant parallels between the central units of these two respective macro-chiasms that will be delineated in the section “D and D' correspondences (Alma 22:1–16 and 22:17–26): The turning point.”

The Eight-Element Chiasm in Alma 21:1–23:15

The unusual inclusio and the subtle references to the single Amalekite highlight the possibility of a second striking literary structure that spills over into the subsequent chapter of Alma. This is an eight-element chiasm as shown below:

A Aaron preaches to an Amalekite in Jerusalem; the Amalekite asks seven questions; a righteous people; the Amalekites and Amulonites harden the hearts of the Lamanites (21:1–11)

B Aaron and some of his brethren are cast into prison; they are delivered by Lamoni and Ammon; they preach the word in every assembly they could be admitted; many brought to the knowledge of the truth; convinced many of traditions of their fathers which were not correct (21:12–17)

C Literary aside on Ammon and Lamoni in the land of Ishmael; they return to the land of Ishmael and teach the people; Lamoni declares unto his people that they are free and have the liberty to worship God according to their desires; the land under Lamoni’s reign is highlighted (21:18–23)

D Aaron teaches the king the plan of redemption (22:1–16)

D' The king responds to Aaron’s teaching and is converted unto the Lord (22:17–26)

C' Literary aside on the geography of Lamanite and Nephite lands; the king sends a proclamation to his people concerning the sons of Mosiah and their brethren; the land under the king’s reign is specified (22:27–35)

B' The king decrees that the sons of Mosiah and their brethren not be cast into prison; they have free access to preach to the Lamanites; the king desires that his people might be convinced concerning the wicked traditions of their fathers; thousands brought to the knowledge of the Lord/truth (23:1–6)

A' One Amalekite is converted; seven Lamanite cities are converted unto the Lord; a righteous people; the Amalekites and Amulonites harden the hearts of the Lamanites (23:7–15)

As with the extended parallel structure, a table is also provided below to aid in identifying key correspondences between paired units in this chiasm.

Alma 21:1–11 (A)

Alma 23:7–15 (A')

1. Three groups are mentioned together—the Lamanites, Amalekites, and Amulonites (21:3).

1. Three groups are mentioned together—the Lamanites, Amalekites, and Amulonites (23:14).

2. The Amalekites and Amulonites “did cause the Lamanites that they should harden their hearts” (21:3).

2. The Amalekites and Amulonites “did harden their hearts and also the hearts of the Lamanites” (23:14).

3. Aaron preaches in the “city” of Jerusalem, then goes to the “village” of Ani-Anti, and then departs for the “land” of Middoni (21:4, 11, 12).

3. Lamanite hearts were hardened in the “land,” “villages,” and “cities” in which they dwelt (23:14). These appear in inverted order from their ordering in element A.

4. “An Amalekite” arose and began to contend with Aaron (21:5). This is the only instance of the word Amalekite in the singular in the Book of Mormon.

4. “The Amalekites were not converted, save only one” (23:14).

5. The Amalekite asks Aaron seven questions (21:5–6).

5. Seven Lamanite cities are converted (23:9–12).

Alma 21:12–17 (B)

Alma 23:1–6 (B')

1. Aaron and his brethren “did convince many . . . of the tradition of their fathers, which were not correct” (21:17).

1. The word was to go forth “that his people might be convinced concerning the wicked traditions of their fathers” (23:3).

2. They went forth “preaching the word of God” (21:16).

2. They should go forth “preaching the word of God” (23:1).

3. They preach “in every synagogue . . . or in every assembly . . . where they could be admitted” (21:16).

3. The king sent a decree that the sons of Mosiah and their brethren should have “free access to their houses and also their temples and their sanctuaries” (23:2) and “that the word of God might have no obstruction” (23:3).

4. “They brought many to the knowledge of the truth” (21:17).

4. “As many as were brought to the knowledge of the truth . . . never did fall away” (23:6).

5. Aaron and some of his brethren “were taken and cast into prison” (21:13).

5. The king sent a decree “that they should not lay their hands on them . . . to cast them into prison” (23:2).

Alma 21:18–23 (C)

Alma 22:27–35 (C')

1. This is a literary aside that is clearly bracketed off by the statement, “Now . . . we will return to the account of Aaron and his other brethren” (22:1).

1. This is a literary aside that is clearly delimited by the concluding statement, “And now I . . . return again to the account of Ammon, and Aaron, Omner, and Himni, and their brethren” (22:35).

2. King Lamoni’s father “granted unto [Lamoni] that he might reign over the people which were in the land of Ishmael and in all the land round about” (21:21).

2. “The king sent a proclamation throughout all the land amongst all his people which was in all his land, which was in all the regions round about” (22:27).

3. The theme of “the liberty of worshipping the Lord their God according to their desires” is explicitly highlighted (21:22).

3. The theme of freedom in worshipping God is implied by the king’s action to send “a proclamation throughout all the land amongst all his people” (22:27). The proclamation allows the sons of Mosiah to freely preach the word to the people without harm and “that the word of God might have no obstruction” (23:3).

Alma 22:1–16 (D)

Alma 22:17–26 (D')

1. Aaron “bowed himself before the king” (22:2) and twice instructs the king to “bow down before God” (22:16).

1. The king “did bow down before the Lord . . . yea, even he did prostrate himself upon the earth” (22:17).

2. The king asks about what Ammon said—“If ye will repent, ye shall be saved, and if ye will not repent, ye shall be cast off at the last day” (22:6). Aaron also asks the king to “repent of all [his] sins” (22:16).

2. The king prays to God and declares that he “will give away all [his] sins to . . . be saved at the last day” (22:18).

3. Aaron asks if the king believes there is a God and then testifies to the king that “there is a God” (22:7–8).

3. The king cries unto God, “O God, Aaron hath told me that there is a God” (22:18).

4. Aaron teaches the king that Christ “breaketh the bands of death, that the grave shall have no victory” (22:14).

4. The king prays that he could be “raised from the dead” (22:18).

5. The king insists that Aaron and his brethren “administer unto” him (22:3).

5. The king began to “minister unto [his whole household]. And he did minister unto them” (22:23). The king also stood before the multitude and “administered unto them” (22:25).

6. The king had Aaron and his brethren arise after they bowed before him (22:3).

6. Aaron “raised the king from the earth” (22:22).

7. The king grants unto Aaron and his brethren their lives (22:3).

7. The queen commands her servants to slay Aaron and his brethren (22:19).

8. The king mentions Ammon’s generosity and the greatness of his words (22:3).

8. The servants of the queen declare that one of Aaron or his brethren is mightier than them all (22:20).

Correlation between Matching Elements

As previously noted, the chiasm in Alma 21:1–23:15 is one of three large chiastic structures used to highlight the three main story arcs within Alma 17–27. The chiasm tells the story of Aaron’s preaching to the Lamanites and summarizes the fruits of the labors of the sons of Mosiah and their brethren from their fourteen-year journey among the Lamanites.

The chapter breaks that Mormon establishes throughout the Book of Mormon are a great tool in helping the reader consider and analyze portions of the text as individual literary units. There is also strong evidence that Mormon formed other literary structures that span multiple chapters and even entire books.16 There are sound reasons for Mormon to have purposefully structured this portion of the text as a chiasm, as discussed in the following sections.

A and A' correspondences (Alma 21:1–11 and 23:7–15)

The outer framing for this chiasm is evident on multiple fronts, consisting of several parallels and shared keywords between these two elements. An inclusio frames Alma 21:1–23:15 together as a distinct literary unit. Only at the beginning and end of this unit (in these two elements) are three groups mentioned together whom Aaron and his brethren encountered in Lamanite lands—Lamanites, Amalekites, and Amulonites (21:2; 23:14). The influence of the Amalekites and Amulonites on the Lamanites is also highlighted here and nowhere else within the unit. In 21:3, the Amalekites and Amulonites are described as being “still harder [than the Lamanites]. Therefore they did cause the Lamanites that they should harden their hearts.” In 23:14, the Amalekites and Amulonites again are described in similar terms and having similar effect upon the Lamanites. They “did harden their hearts and also the hearts of the Lamanites in that part of the land whithersoever they dwelt.”

There is also a link between the different locations where Aaron preaches. The first three places where Aaron preaches are the city of Jerusalem, the village of Ani-Anti, and the land of Middoni. These three specific types of areas—land, villages, and cities—appear in inverted order in 23:14.

In A, Aaron began his preaching in the city of Jerusalem wherein many Amalekites and Lamanites dwelt, but they would not hear his words (21:4, 10). At the conclusion of Aaron and his brethren’s preaching to the Lamanites, it is noted that lands in which both Amalekites and Lamanites dwelt were not converted unto the Lord (23:14).

Another correspondence between these two elements is the mention of a single Amalekite in each. In A, “an Amalekite” contends with Aaron (21:5). This is the only instance of the word Amalekite in the singular in the Book of Mormon. In A', the summary in 23:14 informs readers that “the Amalekites were not converted, save only one.” This is not a definitive declaration that the Amalekite who first confronted Aaron in Jerusalem later became the sole Amalekite convert, but the chiastic structure invites us to consider the possibility, or at the very least, compare these two Amalekites.

B and B' correspondences (Alma 21:12–17 and 23:1–6)

Elements B and B' share the theme of preaching to the people throughout the land. In B, Aaron and his brethren go forth “preaching the word of God in every synagogue of the Amalekites, or in every assembly of the Lamanites where they could be admitted” (21:16). In B', the king’s proclamation allows Aaron and his brethren to go forth “preaching the word of God, in whatsoever place they should be in, in any part of their land . . . that they should have free access to their houses and also their temples and their sanctuaries” (23:1–2). The phrase preaching the word of God is unique to these two verses in this section of the text (21:16; 23:1) and is found in only one other verse in the Book of Mormon (Mosiah 27:32).

The traditions of the Lamanites’ fathers are only referenced in these two elements, and people are convinced that these traditions are wrong in both cases. In B, Aaron and his brethren did “convince many . . . of the tradition of their fathers, which were not correct” (21:17). In B', the preaching of the word was to go forth throughout all the land, that the “people might be convinced concerning the wicked traditions of their fathers” (23:3). Nowhere else in this chiasm is the word convinced used other than in these two elements. In both elements, many people are brought to the knowledge of the truth or to the Lord. In B, Aaron and his brethren “brought many to the knowledge of the truth” (21:17). In B', “thousands were brought to the knowledge of the Lord . . . As many as were brought to the knowledge of the truth . . . and were converted unto the Lord never did fall away” (23:5–6). The phrase brought to the knowledge of is unique to these two elements within the chiasm.

In B, Aaron and some of his brethren are taken and cast into prison and suffered many things there (21:13–14). Some of these sufferings are described in Alma 20:29–30: “Their skins were worn exceedingly because of being bound with strong cords . . . [The people] had cast them out and had smote them.” In B', the king decrees specifically that the sons of Mosiah and their brethren should not be bound, nor cast into prison, nor smitten, nor cast out of their synagogues (23:2).

C and C' correspondences (Alma 21:18–23 and 22:27–35)

Elements C and C' are matching elements in the chiasm just as they are matching elements in the extended parallel structure discussed earlier. The parallels identified between these elements can be found in the earlier section “C and C' correspondences (Alma 21:18–23 and 22:27–35).” However, the juxtaposition of these two elements within the chiasm provides another reason for the original chapter of Alma 21–22 ending where it does. Again, these two literary asides serve as parallels to each other within the chiasm just as they do in the extended parallel. In the chiasm, however, they also serve as a precise and effective frame of the central elements of the chiasm (D and D').

D and D' correspondences (Alma 22:1–16 and 22:17–26): The turning point

The central elements of this chiasm, D and D', highlight the turning point of the narrative of this second half of the Lamanite conversion story. The king over all the land is taught the plan of redemption, believes what he is taught, responds positively to this teaching by crying unto the Lord, and is converted. Both the teaching of the plan of redemption and a person’s response to this teaching are critical. As King Benjamin taught, “And now, if you believe all these things, see that ye do them” (Mosiah 4:10).

The theme of bowing is shared by these two central elements. Aaron “bowed himself before the king” (22:2) and twice tells the king to “bow down before God” (22:16). In D', “the king did bow down before the Lord upon his knees—yea, even he did prostrate himself upon the earth” (22:17). In D, the king remembers Ammon’s words exhorting him to repent. Ammon said, “if ye will repent, ye shall be saved; and if ye will not repent, ye shall be cast off at the last day” (22:6). In D', the king prays using shared language, even that he might “be saved at the last day” (22:18). The king’s willingness to give away everything is common to both elements. In D, the king declares, “I will give up all that I possess . . . that I may receive this great joy” (22:15). In D', the king prays to God, “I will give away all my sins to know thee” (22:18). In D, Aaron testifies to the king, “Behold, assuredly as thou livest, O king, there is a God” (22:8). In D', the king begins his prayer to God by recalling Aaron’s testimony: “O God, Aaron hath told me that there is a God” (22:18).

The resurrection of the dead is another shared theme, although neither element uses the actual word resurrection. In D, Aaron teaches that Christ “breaketh the bands of death, that the grave shall have no victory and that the sting of death should be swallowed up in the hopes of glory” (22:14). In D', the king prays that he “may be raised from the dead” (22:18). There is also a verbal link with the word administered. In D, the king insists that Aaron and his brethren should “administer” unto him (22:3). In D', the king “administered” unto his own people (22:25). These are the only two instances of the word administer in this chapter.17

The central elements of this chiasm closely parallel the central elements of the chiasm in Alma 17–20.18 Lamoni’s father, the king over all the land, is taught the plan of redemption in the first central element just as Lamoni is taught the plan in the first central element of the chiasm in Alma 17–20. The second central element of each chiasm are comprised of the respective king’s response to this teaching.

The parallels between these matching central elements are plentiful and powerful. Parallels between the first pair of central elements of these two chiasms include the following:19

- Both kings are taught about “the creation of Adam” (18:36; 22:12).

- Ammon and Aaron both taught the kings using the “scriptures,” mentioned twice in each element (18:36, 38; 22:12–13).

- Both kings are taught about “the fall of man” (18:36; 22:13).

- Both kings are taught about “the plan of redemption which was prepared from the foundation of the world” (18:39; 22:13).

- Both kings are taught specifically about “Christ” (18:39; 22:13–14).

Parallels between the second pair of central elements of these two chiasms include the following:20

- Both kings “cry” unto the Lord (18:41; 22:17).

- After crying unto the Lord, each king falls to the earth “as if he were dead” (18:42; 22:18).

- The servants of both kings witness what happens and inform their respective queens (18:43; 22:19).

Analyzing the Chiasticity of the Proposed Chiasm

The same six criteria identified by Neal Rappleye to evaluate proposed chiasms which were used for the chiasm in Alma 17–20 are used here.21 These six criteria are:

- Chiasms should conform to natural literary boundaries.

- A climax or turning point should be found at the center.

- Chiasms should display a relatively well-balanced symmetry.

- The structure of chiasms should be based on major keywords, phrases, or themes.

- Chiasms should manifest little, if any, extraneous repetition or divergent materials.

- Chiastic order should typically not compete with other strong literary forms.

In the following sections, the apparent strengths of the macro chiasm in Alma 21:1–23:15 will be examined, followed by a study of its potential weaknesses.

Strengths of the proposed chiasm

The macro chiasm in Alma 21:1–23:15 effectively meets the middle four criteria of the six listed by Rappleye. Regarding the second criterion, the chiasm has a significant turning point, or hinge point, at its center—the king is taught the plan of redemption by Aaron, and he responds positively to this preaching by crying unto the Lord for salvation. The central elements of this chiasm share numerous parallels with the central elements of the chiasm in Alma 17–20 as noted above, further strengthening the case that this chiasm is an intentional structure. Concerning the third criterion, the chiasm exhibits good balance overall. There are seventy-three total verses within it; twenty-three before the first of the two central elements and twenty-four after the second central element. The central elements themselves consist of sixteen and ten verses, respectively. The chiasm also effectively meets the fourth criterion as its structure is based on keywords, phrases, and themes found within Alma 21:1–23:15. Throughout the analysis on the matching elements above, extraneous repetition has been identified and considered. However, most of the keywords and phrases included in the chiasm are unique to their matching elements, thus satisfying the fifth criterion.

Potential weaknesses of the proposed chiasm

There are two potential weaknesses relative to the six criteria noted by Rappleye. These weaknesses are relative to the first and sixth criteria. This chiasm initially appears not to meet the first criterion regarding natural literary boundaries because it includes fifteen verses from Alma 23, part of a different original chapter in the Book of Mormon. Since the chiasm uses only a portion of a chapter, the boundaries must be identifiable in a different manner. Are these proposed boundaries sufficiently well-defined to overcome this apparent weakness in meeting this criterion?

Natural literary boundaries may present themselves in a text in ways other than by a chapter break. First, strong framing may be exhibited via keyword links or other parallels between matching elements. Such framing can effectively define the parameters of a text. In the above analysis of corresponding elements in the chiasm, framing is demonstrated in multiple instances by matching keywords and parallels in elements A and A'. An example of this is the somewhat odd mention of a single unnamed Amalekite converting to the Lord in 23:14 which is paired with a single unnamed Amalekite who questions Aaron in 21:5–6. Phrases or details that stand out as being uncommon or especially noteworthy often end up playing a structural role in the text, much like the mention of one Amalekite does here. Other unique keywords and parallels framing the outer boundaries of the chiasm are referenced in the section “A and A' correspondences (Alma 21:1–11 and 23:7–15).”

A second way that the literary boundaries of a text may be revealed comes simply by analyzing the context of the narrative. In this proposed chiasm, there is a clear ending to the story arc in 23:7–15. Mormon lists the seven cities or lands in which Lamanites were all converted unto the Lord, thus effectively wrapping up the preaching narrative of the sons of Mosiah to the Lamanites. The remainder of the text through Alma 27 does not involve any direct preaching efforts of the sons of Mosiah but is rather a history of events of the people of Anti-Nephi-Lehi.

There is one additional factor to consider regarding the boundaries of this chiasm—it is sandwiched tightly between two other macro-chiasms. The starting point of this chiasm is dictated by the ending of the previous chiasm for Alma 17–20. The endpoint of this chiasm is dictated by the beginning of the subsequent chiasm for 23:16–27:30. These statements operate on the assumption that the other two chiasms are properly framed. The conclusion to the chiasm in Alma 17–20 comes at the conclusion of Alma 20. This is evident from previous analysis done on that chiasm. Without going into too much detail here, the subsequent chiasm in 23:16–27:30 is also distinctly framed by keywords and thematically by the composition of a complete story arc. The king and those converted to the Lord distinguish themselves with a new name, being called the people of Anti-Nephi-Lehi (23:16–17). Once this people arrive in Zarahemla and are given the land of Jershon, they are called the people of Ammon and are “distinguished by that name ever after” (27:26). The word distinguished is used twice in 23:16 and then twice more in 27:26–27, but nowhere else within these chapters, forming an effective frame for this portion of the text. The entire narrative of the people while they are called the people of Anti-Nephi-Lehi is thus contained within the verses of the chiasm.

The second potential weakness is the question of whether the chiasm meets Rappleye’s sixth criterion. As detailed in this paper, there are two literary structures that use Alma 21–22. However, the order of chiastic elements does not compete with or disrupt the order of elements in the extended parallel structure. Rather, the two structures complement each other well. For example, the first major literary unit in 21:1–11 parallels the fourth major literary unit in 22:1–16 in the extended parallel structure, whereas in the chiasm, the first major literary unit in 21:1–11 instead parallels the last literary unit in 23:7–15. Despite this dual function of the first literary unit in 21:1–11, meaningful parallels are masterfully created corresponding to each respective paired unit which bring added meaning to the text.

The Possibility of Overlapping Literary Structures

The critical issue of overlapping literary structures needs to be addressed in further detail. As stated above, the sixth criterion identified by Rappleye to evaluate the strength of proposed chiasms states that chiastic forms should not typically compete with other strong literary forms. The two structures proposed in this article may constitute an exception. The extended parallel structure is found within one original chapter in the Book of Mormon consisting of Alma 21–22. With such clear boundaries, the chiasm for Alma 21:1–23:15 carries the burden of showing that it, too, is a valid and likely intended literary structure.

Do two proposed literary structures covering portions of the same text merely prove that neither of the two should be considered valid? It is up to readers to decide if they prefer one structure over another, agree with both structures, or conclude that neither structure is acceptable based on the evidence presented.

It is important to note that the same literary units delimited in Alma 21–22 are used in each structure. If the structures had different literary units, there would need to be proper justification for any adjustments. Delimiting literary units is the first step of literary analysis. The parameters of a literary unit normally should not change based on the type of structure identified. The question then becomes the following: Can a literary unit be a part of two different intended literary structures? If readers concludes that both structures are valid and intended by the author, the answer must be yes. As mentioned above, in this article it is proposed that the literary unit consisting of Alma 21:1–11 parallels the literary unit of Alma 22:1–16 in the extended parallel structure. This same unit, Alma 21:1–11, is also considered parallel to Alma 23:7–15 in the chiastic structure. Can this first unit have such a dual function?

There are many examples of structures in the Old Testament that serve as exceptions to this general rule. David Dorsey, a non-LDS Old Testament scholar, includes many such examples from the books of Genesis, Exodus, Joshua, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther.22 For example, Dorsey has Genesis 1:1–6:8 consisting of a seven-element chiastic structure.23 He then shows that Genesis 1–11 can be arranged as an extended parallel structure with seven parallel paired elements.24 The seven elements from the chiasm in Genesis 1:1–6:8 are the same seven elements that then have parallel elements in Genesis 6:9–11:26. Hence, the first element of the chiasm spanning Genesis 1:1–2:3 matches both Genesis 6:5–8 in the chiastic structure and Genesis 6:9–9:19 in the extended parallel structure.

Another example of overlapping structures, specifically involving macro-structures, comes from analyzing the structure of the book of Alma. Joseph Spencer divides the book of Alma into four quarters.25 The first quarter (Alma 1–16) parallels the third quarter (Alma 30–44), and the second quarter (Alma 17–29) parallels the fourth quarter (Alma 45–63). Drilling down further into this proposed structure, he pairs the account of Nehor and the Amalekites in Alma 1–3 with the account of Korihor and the Zoramites in Alma 30–35.

Grant Hardy provides an alternative structure for Alma 1–44 in which these chapters form a chiasm consisting of seven elements.26 In this structure, the account of Nehor and the Amalekites in Alma 1–3 parallels the Zoramite war in Alma 43–44.

Spencer and Hardy both provide substantial evidence for their respective structures. The two structures feature some of the same paired elements, such as Alma’s preaching journeys in Alma 4–16 paralleling Alma’s testimony to his sons in Alma 36–42. Other elements from the two structures are paired with different elements such as the example provided above. If both structures were intended by Mormon, then some elements in macro-structures can indeed function as parallels with multiple elements.

Paired elements in overlapping structures carry the burden of exhibiting significant distinct parallels in multiple structures. Each proposed structure must undergo the same analysis and evaluation and should stand on its own merit. It is possible that Mormon could have given the original chapter its own unique structure while also wanting to highlight this second major division of the account of the sons of Mosiah in a similar structure to the proposed macro-chiasms in Alma 17–2027 and Alma 23:16–27:30.28 If so, his skill as an author and redactor are even more impressive and noteworthy.

Conclusions

Many insights have been identified throughout this article that come from evaluating two possible literary structures from Alma 21:1–23:15. In summary, here are the main takeaways from each structure.

Additional meaning derived from the extended parallel structure

The six major literary units of Alma 21–22 can be clearly delimited and exhibit an extended parallel structure in the form of A-B-C-A'-B'-C'. This structure helps draw out additional meaning in the text by inviting the reader to closely compare the parallel units. Much like the structure in Alma 17–20, this chapter’s underlying structure appears to be deliberately and thoughtfully crafted by Mormon. Aaron and his brethren’s preaching in the land of Nephi comprises the second half of the Lamanite conversion story. It serves as a worthy complement to Ammon’s preaching in the land of Ishmael which comprises the first half of the Lamanite conversion story.

The comparisons between elements A and A' in the extended parallel structure lead to many compelling and insightful questions about the effectiveness of those who teach the plan of redemption and how people become converted to the Lord. Aaron preaches the word of God in both episodes. In each, he uses the scriptures to teach concerning the death, suffering, Atonement, and Resurrection of Christ. The messages he shares with the people are the same, and yet the outcomes from these two teaching occasions could not be any more different. Aaron asks both the Amalekite and the king if they believe in what he is teaching (21:7; 22:7, 10). The Amalekite does not believe Aaron’s teaching, whereas the king believes Aaron’s words. The king was in a better position to accept the word after his earlier dramatic experience with Ammon (20:8–27). Aaron departs the city of Jerusalem because the people there would not even hear his words, whereas the king and eventually all the people in the city of Nephi are converted unto the Lord (21:11; 23:11).

The structure also highlights what appears to be two dissimilar literary asides in 21:18–23 and 22:27–35 as matching elements. The purpose behind the second aside becomes clearer when it is compared to the first one. In the first aside, the land specifically under Lamoni’s reign is highlighted on two different occasions (21:21, 22). In the second aside, “The king sent a proclamation throughout all the land amongst all his people” (22:27). While what follows this statement proves to be invaluable to readers’ understanding of Nephite and Lamanite geography in the Book of Mormon, such geographical knowledge does not appear to be the primary purpose of this section of the text. In parallel with the first aside, the lands under the king’s reign in the land of Nephi are featured—the lands in which the king sent his proclamation, the lands in which his people dwelt. Without doing careful structural analysis of the text, this insight could be missed.

Additional meaning derived from the chiastic structure

The paramount event from Alma 21–22 is the preaching of the gospel to, and the subsequent conversion of, the king over all the land in Alma 22:1–26. This account, consisting of two literary units, is nicely framed between the two literary asides mentioned above and constitutes the center of the chiasm. These two literary units parallel the two central literary units of the chiasm identified in Alma 17–20. Each center constitutes the turning point in its respective narrative. The shared keywords, phrases, and actions in these two conversion stories of the two kings further solidifies the significance of these events and the impact they had on Nephite and Lamanite history for hundreds of years. These two central episodes both concern a king of the Lamanites who is taught about the Creation, the Fall, Christ, and the plan of redemption, which was prepared from the foundation of the world (18:36–39; 22:12–14). Each king is taught by one of the sons of Mosiah expounding unto him the scriptures, and each respective king is called to respond to the Savior (18:36–40; 22:12–16). Both kings respond positively to this call by crying unto the Lord (18:41; 22:17). They both fall to the earth as if they were dead (18:42; 22:18). Both are eventually raised from the earth, teach the gospel to those around them, and many are converted unto the Lord (19:12, 30–31; 22:22–23).

The kings’ responses to the preaching of the sons of Mosiah by crying unto the Lord for mercy is a prominent theme that shows up in significant structural positions elsewhere in the Book of Mormon. For example, a cry for mercy is duly highlighted at the center of the macro-chiasm in Alma 36.29 Alma “cried within [his] heart: O Jesus, thou Son of God, have mercy on me” (Alma 36:18). This theme also figures prominently in another possible macro-chiasm for Alma 1–4 in which Alma is fighting with Amlici and cries out, “O Lord, have mercy and spare my life” (Alma 2:30). This becomes a turning point in the Nephites’ battle with the Amalekites and Lamanites in these chapters.

The reader will almost certainly have an increased appreciation for Mormon’s literary genius after identifying and studying these multiple interwoven structures. It is evident that Mormon carefully and deliberately structured both chapters and narrative episodes to add greater depth and meaning to the text.

Appendix: Identifying Individual Units in Alma 21–22

There are six major literary units for Alma 21–22. Delimiting these units is quite straightforward. After first paying particular attention to the chapter breaks in the text, this process of delimiting the literary units the second step in the methodology used to identify literary structures in this chapter.30 The third and final step is to analyze these major literary units for patterns, parallels, and other links. That step is completed in the main body of this paper, in the sections “The Extended Parallel Structure (A-B-C-A'-B'-C' Pattern) in Alma 21–22” and “The Eight-Element Chiasm in Alma 21:1–23:15.”

The following sections provide details as to how the six major literary units are identified.

Unit A (Alma 21:1–11)

The first unit of this chapter begins with verse 1 after the heading marks a clear shift in the narrative, transitioning from Ammon’s preaching in the land of Ishmael to Aaron, Muloki, and their brethren’s preaching to the Lamanites. The beginning of the unit mentions the dynamics found in the Lamanite city of Jerusalem. This city is inhabited by Lamanites, Amalekites, and Amulonites. The Amalekites and Amulonites are said to have a strong negative influence on the Lamanites which hints at the response Aaron is likely to receive in their shared lands. Aaron arrives in the city of Jerusalem to preach. The entire episode of Aaron’s preaching in Jerusalem is contained in this first unit, ending with verse 11, “when [Aaron] saw that they would not hear his words, he departed out of the synagogue” and went to a village called Ani-Anti to preach.

In addition to this shift in location, there is a shift in characters in verse 11 as Aaron finds Muloki, Ammah, and some of his brethren preaching the word in Ani-Anti. Such shifts are generally good indicators of the beginning of a new literary unit. However, in this case, there are only two sentences concerning the village of Ani-Anti before the group travels to the land of Middoni in verse 12. The setting for subsequent verses is clearly the land of Middoni, the land in which Aaron and some of his brethren are cast into prison and are afterwards delivered by Ammon and Lamoni. The mention of the village of Ani-Anti thus functions mainly to bring Muloki and Ammah together with Aaron since the reader is already told in Alma 20:2 that these three individuals were in prison together in Middoni. The narrative then quickly moves on to what happens in the land of Middoni. As such, verse 11 remains a part of the current unit.

The theme of this unit is Aaron’s initial unsuccessful missionary efforts among the Lamanites. He goes to the city of Jerusalem and first begins preaching to the Amalekites in their synagogues. One Amalekite contend with Aaron. This unnamed Amalekite asks Aaron seven questions in rapid succession. Aaron opens the scriptures unto him and the other people there and preaches about Christ’s coming, death, sufferings, Atonement, and Resurrection. The people are angry with Aaron and mock him, so he leaves the synagogue and the city. Aaron next goes to Ani-Anti where he finds Muloki, Ammah, and others. The people in this village also do not believe in their preaching. Instead, the people there contend with Aaron and his brethren about the word.

Unit B (Alma 21:12–17)

The second unit begins in verse 12 with a shift in location as Aaron and his brethren go to the land of Middoni. Few there believe in what they are taught, and the people cast Aaron and some of his brethren into prison (vv. 12–13). They suffer many things and are then delivered by Lamoni and Ammon as recounted in the preceding chapter (Alma 20:28). These brethren again go forth to preach the word of God wherever they can be admitted. This unit ends with a summary of the first taste of success Aaron and his brethren experience. There is a clear shift in characters and location in verse 18 to mark the beginning of the next unit.

Unit C (Alma 21:18–23)

This unit begins with Ammon and Lamoni returning to the land of Ishmael after they delivered Aaron and his brethren from prison in Middoni. This unit is a narrative summary of the further work that Ammon and Lamoni conduct in the land of Ishmael. Synagogues are built. Lamoni grants his people liberty to worship God according to their desires. Ammon and Lamoni continue to teach the people things pertaining to righteousness.

This unit ends with a brief description of King Lamoni’s people (v. 23). They give heed to Ammon’s word and “were zealous for keeping the commandments of God.” Another clear indication that this marks the end of this unit comes in the subsequent verse in 22:1: “Now as Ammon was thus teaching the people of Lamoni continually, we will return to the account of Aaron and his other brethren.” The nature of this unit is made clearer by this verse. The preceding six verses which comprise the unit function as a literary aside, or digression, from the main narrative of the chapter. Mormon knows he has drifted somewhat from the main topic and overtly returns to the account of Aaron and his brethren’s preaching to the Lamanites.

Unit A' (Alma 22:1–16)

This unit begins in 22:1 as Mormon returns to the account of Aaron and his brethren. This unit is linked with the previous unit by Mormon repeating the fact that Ammon was teaching the people of King Lamoni, but he does so using slightly different wording. Instead of preaching and exhorting Lamoni’s people daily (21:23), Mormon uses the word continually here to describe Ammon’s teaching.

Aaron and his brethren are led by the Spirit to the land of Nephi, even to the house of the king over all the land, Lamoni’s father. Aaron tells the king they are the brethren of Ammon whom he delivered out of prison. He asks the king to spare their lives and allow them to be his servants. The king does not suffer them to become his servants. Instead, he asks them to teach him about the Spirit of the Lord and the words of Ammon that had been troubling his mind. Aaron proceeds to teach the king the plan of redemption. The king asks what he can do to have eternal life. Aaron tells him that he must bow down before God, repent of all his sins, and call on God’s name in faith, believing that he shall receive, and then he would receive the hope he desires. Aaron’s dialog with the king concludes in verse 16, bringing an end to this literary unit.

Unit B' (Alma 22:17–26)

This unit consists of a single scene involving the king’s response to Aaron’s preaching. He cries unto the Lord for forgiveness and salvation, falls to the earth as if he were dead, and is then raised from the earth by Aaron after a time. This scene also includes the queen and her servants, the king’s servants, and a multitude of people who gather at the king’s palace. Each of these parties responds to Aaron and his brethren. The king ends up ministering to all of them. This scene shares many parallels with the episode of Lamoni’s conversion to the Lord in Alma 18–19, but in a condensed form.

This scene, and thus this literary unit, ends in verse 26 with the king causing Aaron and his brethren to stand forth to preach the word unto the multitude that had gathered.

Unit C' (Alma 22:27–35)

There is a clear shift in time and setting in verse 27. The unit begins with the statement that “the king sent a proclamation throughout all the land” (22:27). We do not learn the contents of this proclamation until the next chapter (23:1–3). In between, Mormon gives another aside which details the geography of the land in greater depth than we are given in any other place in the Book of Mormon. John Sorenson stated the following:

The nearest thing to a systematic explanation of Mormon’s geographical picture is given in Alma 22:27–34. In the course of relating an incident involving Nephite missionaries and the great king over the Lamanites, Mormon inserted a 570-word aside that summarized major features of the land southward. He must have considered that treatment full and clear enough for his purposes, because he never returned to the topic.31

This begs the question, though: Why did Mormon insert this geographical information at this point in his account? John Welch provides a great explanation:

While people studying the geography of the lands of the Book of Mormon rightly see this geographical aside as the best roadmap we have been given for the lands around Zarahemla, it is clear that its purpose here is to explain just one thing, namely the extent of the territory covered by the royal edict of Lamoni’s father, who controlled only “the land of Nephi and the wilderness round about” (22:34).32

To keep this geographical information in proper context, Mormon first mentions the king’s land and proceeds to define the boundaries of his territory. Like the aside in unit C, the end of this unit is delimited by Mormon’s statement that he is returning to the main narrative, “the account of Ammon, and Aaron, Omner, and Himni, and their brethren” (22:35). There is then a section break after this verse, signifying the beginning of a new chapter.

The phrase Mormon uses at the end of this unit to return to the account at hand is not identical to the one in Alma 22:1. In verse 1, Mormon returns to “the account of Aaron and his other brethren,” which is consistent with the heading before Alma 21. This heading states that what follows is “an account of the preaching of Aaron and Muloki and their brethren to the Lamanites.” In 22:35, Mormon writes that he is returning “to the account of Ammon, and Aaron, Omner, and Himni, and their brethren.” Ammon, Omner, and Himni are reintroduced to the account so Mormon can wrap up the narrative of all the sons of Mosiah’s fourteen-year journey among the Lamanites. This shift in characters is another potential motivating factor behind Mormon’s decision to begin a new chapter. There are also structural considerations that strengthen the argument for the chapter break coming at this point. These structural considerations are detailed above in the comparisons between matching elements for both the extended parallel and chiastic structures.

[Author’s Note: I am very grateful for the anonymous reviewers and editorial staff of Interpreter who selflessly gave of their time and expertise to improve this article. I also want to thank my beautiful mother for her love for the Book of Mormon and for her constant support in my writing.]

Derek Squire was born and raised in Orem, Utah. President Ezra Taft Benson’s call to make the study of the Book of Mormon a lifetime pursuit changed his life when Derek was a teenager. Derek graduated from BYU with a master’s degree in accounting and has been a CPA, nursing home administrator, and business owner of a home health and hospice company with his brother. He is currently a real estate investor. He and his brother, Ryan, are the authors of the book A Christlike Heart: A Study of the Heart in the Book of Mormon (CFI, 2019). Derek served a mission in the Russia Rostov-na-Donu Mission. He and his wife, Elizabeth, are the parents of three girls and a boy. They currently reside in Bountiful, Utah.

1 . Derek Squire, “The Literary Structure of Alma 17–20: A 14-unit Chiasm,” Interpreter: A Journal of Latter-day Saint Faith and Scholarship 60 (2023) 87–136, journal.interpreterfoundation.org/the-literary-structure-of-alma-17-20
-a-14-unit-chiasm/.

2 . When I use original in this article to describe chapters of the Book of Mormon, I mean the chapters or sections as broken out and clearly delineated on the Original and Printer Manuscripts of the Book of Mormon. Any mention of chapter in this article is in reference to Alma 21–22 unless otherwise stated. However, for referencing in this article, I will use the Book of Mormon’s current chapters and verses. For wording and grammar of scriptures in this paper, unless noted otherwise, I will use Royal Skousen, ed., The Book of Mormon: The Earliest Text, 2nd ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2022).

3 . Squire, “Literary Structure of Alma 17–20,” 3–6.

4 . Derek Squire, “The Literary Structure of Alma 23–27,” Interpreter: A Journal of Latter-day Saint Faith and Scholarship 64 (2025) 1–24, journal.interpreter
foundation.org/the-literary-structure-of-alma-23-27/.

5 . I use Mormon’s name throughout this article as the main contributor to the structural design of this chapter, but it could also be the work of Alma. This authorial question will not be addressed here.

6 . I use Amalekites throughout this article instead of Amlicites, as shown in The Book of Mormon: The Earliest Text. I agree with Skousen’s opinion that the Amlicites and Amalekites are one and the same people, at Royal Skousen, Analysis of Textual Variants of the Book of Mormon, Part 4: Alma 21–55 (Provo, UT: FARMS, 2014), 1605–6. Even so, most people are more familiar with the term Amalekites for this portion of the text. Hopefully, such treatment will avoid unnecessary confusion that might occur if the term Amlicites were instead used throughout this article.

7 . I use the word unit in reference to the six major literary sections of Alma 21–22. When referencing the specific parts of the extended parallel and chiastic structures, the term element(s) will be used to differentiate from these six major literary units.

8 . Hugh W. Pinnock, “Forms of Parallelism,” in Finding Biblical Hebrew and Other Ancient Literary Forms in the Book of Mormon (Provo, UT: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies [FARMS]; Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1999), https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?filename=3&article=1034&context=mi&type=additional.

9 . The Amalekite’s seven questions are: 1) “What is that that thou hast testified?”; 2) “Hast thou seen an angel?”; 3) “Why do not angels appear unto us?”; 4) “Behold, are not this people as good as thy people?”; 5) “How knowest thou the thought and intent of our heart?”; 6) “How knowest thou that we have cause to repent?”; and 7) “How knowest thou that we are not a righteous people?” (Alma 21:5–6).

10 . There are two other uses of the words hand or hands in this chapter. In 22:20, the servants “durst not lay their hands on Aaron and his brethren.” In 22:34, the phrase on every hand occurs, clearly being used differently from the usage in 21:14 and 22:22.

11 . There is one other reference to hardened hearts in this chapter—the Amalekites and the Amulonites “did cause the Lamanites that they should harden their hearts” (21:3). This description foreshadows the reactions to Aaron and his brethren’s preaching in elements B and B'.

12 . The heading before Alma 21 can be viewed in the 1920 edition of the Book of Mormon at archive.org/details/bookofmormonacco00bookuoft
/page/248/mode/2up.

13 . “1920 Book of Mormon, Apostles Revision,” History of the Scriptures, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (website), churchofjesuschrist.org
/study/manual/about-the-scriptures/history?lang=eng#title21.

14 . Squire, “Literary Structure of Alma 17–20.”

15 . Squire, “Literary Structure of Alma 23–27.”

16 . See, for example, John W. Welch, “Chiasmus in the Book of Mormon,” BYU Studies 10, no. 1 (1969): 69–84, byustudies.byu.edu/article/chiasmus-in
-the-book-of-mormon; Grant Hardy, “Nurturing Faith: Literary Patterning in the Book of Alma,” in Give Ear to My Words: Text and context of Alma 36–42, ed. Kerry Hull, Nicholas J. Frederick, and Hank R. Smith (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University; Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2019), 369–88, rsc.byu.edu/give-ear-my-words/nurturing-faith; Joseph M. Spencer, “The Structure of the Book of Alma,” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 26, no. 1 (2017): 273–83, scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent
.cgi?article=1609&context=jbms.

17 . There are two instances of the word ministered in this chapter, both occurring in element D'. It is twice mentioned that the king “ministered” unto his household in Alma 22:23.

18 . Squire, “Literary Structure of Alma 17–20,” 10–12.

19 . There are many other parallels between Alma 18:22–35 and 22:1–16 not listed above. The heart of Aaron’s teaching to the king is found in Alma 22:12–14 which closely parallels Alma 18:36–39. However, Alma 22:1–11, 15–16 is also included in the central element of this chiasm, whereas Alma 18:22–35 is in a separate element in the chiasm for Alma 17–20. These additional parallels include the following: each king is asked, “Believest thou that there is a God?” (18:24; 22:7); God is said to be the Great Spirit that each king initially believed in (18:26–28; 22:9–10); and each king is asked if they believe that God “created all things in heaven and in earth” (18:28; 22:10).

20 . There are many other parallels between Alma 19:2–36 and 22:17–26 not listed here. Alma 19:2–36 consists of three additional elements in the chiasm for Alma 17–20, whereas Alma 22:17–26 is a single condensed element. These additional parallels include the following: Abish/the queen caused the people to gather at the king’s house (19:17; 22:21); there is an exceedingly sharp contention in 19:28 while a great contention is feared to occur in 22:22; the queen/Aaron takes the king’s hand and he arises (19:30; 22:22); and each king teaches or ministers to his respective people, resulting in people converting unto the Lord (19:31; 22:23).

21 . Neal Rappleye, “Chiasmus Criteria in Review,” Chiasmus: The State of the Art, eds. John W. Welch and Donald W. Parry (Provo, UT: BYU Studies and Book of Mormon Central, 2020): 296, 301–2, scripturecentral.org/archive
/books/book-chapter/chiasmus-criteria-review.

22 . David A. Dorsey, The Literary Structure of the Old Testament: A Commentary on Genesis–Malachi (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1999), 48–71, 90–95, 158–64, archive.org/details/literarystructur0000dors.

23 . Dorsey, Literary Structure of the Old Testament, 51.

24 . Dorsey, Literary Structure of the Old Testament, 55.

25 . Spencer, “Structure of the Book of Alma,” 282–83.

26 . Hardy, “Nurturing Faith,” 370.

27 . Squire, “Literary Structure of Alma 17–20,” 87–136.

28 . Squire, “Literary Structure of Alma 23–27,” 1–24.

29 . John W. Welch and J. Gregory Welch, “Chiasmus in Alma 36,” in Charting the Book of Mormon: Visual Aids for Personal Study and Teaching (Provo, UT: FARMS, 1999), chart 132, scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi
?article=1019&context=mi.

30 . Squire, “Literary Structure of Alma 17–20,” 3–6.

31 . John L. Sorenson, Mormon’s Map (Provo, UT: FARMS, 2000), 9, archive
.bookofmormoncentral.org/sites/default/files/archive-files/pdf/sorenson
/2024-04-18/john_l._sorenson_mormons_map_2000.pdf.

32 . John W. Welch, “Alma 23–29” in John W. Welch Notes: Verse by Verse Thoughts on The Book of Mormon (Springville, UT: Book of Mormon Central, 2020), 640, archive.bookofmormoncentral.org/content/alma-23–29.